Intro to Neuro Ch 3 Textbook

When the action potential arrives at the synapse, it opens voltage-gated calcium channels resulting in _____.

an inward flow of calcium

When the calcium binds to the vesicular membrane, it _____.

activates the vesicles to fuse with the presynaptic membrane

Once the neurotransmitter molecules are released into the synaptic cleft, they _____ in the cleft.

diffuse throughout the interstitial fluid

Neurotransmitters influence the postsynaptic electrical state for only a short time and are removed from the synaptic cleft in one of three ways:_____ , enzymatically degraded, or recycled by the presynaptic cell.

diffusion away from the receptors

Which of the following is an endogenous substance?

A painkiller

A neurotransmitter

An antibiotic

A poison

A neurotransmitter

A(n) __________ is a specialized protein that is embedded in the cell membrane, allowing it to selectively sense and react to molecules of the corresponding neurotransmitter.

receptor

Which of the following occur when an excitatory synapse becomes active? (Select all that apply.)

It brings the cell closer to its threshold for producing an action potential.

It depolarizes the postsynaptic membrane.

True or False: When active, an inhibitory synapse causes a local depolarization of the postsynaptic membrane.

False: When active, an inhibitory synapse causes a local hyperpolarization that decreases the likelihood the neuron will fire an action potential

What are the major categories of neurotransmitter receptors? (Select all that apply.)

Metabotropic receptors

Ionotropic receptors

Which of the following receptors, when activated, uses a second-messenger system to open nearby ion channels?

metabotropic receptor

True or False: Each neurotransmitter acts exclusively on one specific type of receptor.

False: The specific response of any postsynaptic neuron to molecules of neurotransmitter is determined by the particular subtype of receptor present on the postsynaptic membrane.

__________ substances are the substances that arise from outside the body.

Exogenous

A(n) __________ receptor is a receptor protein containing an ion channel that opens when the receptor is bound by a neurotransmitter or agonist.

Ionotropic

Which of the following would be found on the presynaptic membrane?

Reuptake transporters

_______ systems in the cortex are crucial for learning and memory, and widespread loss of these cells is a characteristic of Alzheimer’s disease.

Cholinergic (neurons that use acetylcholine)

Damage to the ______ systems results in the resting tremors or complete paralysis of Parkinson’s disease

dopaminergic (neurons that use dopamine)

In addition to its role in the coordination of body movements, _______ is also believed to be involved in motivation, reward, and reinforcement.

dopamine

The neurotransmitter _____ acts at the neuromuscular junction of striated muscles and in the brain.

acetylcholine

Identify the criteria a substance must meet to be considered a neurotransmitter. (Select all that apply.)

• It can be synthesized by presynaptic neurons and stored in axon terminals.

• It is recognized by specific receptors located on the postsynaptic membrane.

• It causes changes in the postsynaptic cell.

True or False: Blocking the release of a neurotransmitter interferes with the ability of the presynaptic cell to affect the postsynaptic cell.

TRUE

Which of the following neurotransmitters are amino acid neurotransmitters? (Select all that apply.)

Glutamate

Glycine

Which of the following types of neurotransmitter consists of a short chain of amino acids?

A peptide neurotransmitter

Nitric oxide is an example of a(n) __________.

gas neurotransmitter

Which of the following types of neurotransmitter is based on modifications of a single amino acid nucleus?

An amine neurotransmitter

True or False: Different classical neurotransmitters are carried by the same set of axons, which ensures that all neurotransmitters can act in all the areas of the brain.

False: Each type of neurotransmitter communicates with a distinct set of brain targets.

Where are the cell bodies of the noradrenergic neurons located? (Select all that apply.)

The lateral tegmental area

The locus coeruleus

__________ nuclei is a string of nuclei in the midline of the midbrain and brainstem that contain most of the serotonergic neurons of the brain.

Raphe

True or False: The synthesis and release of more than one type of neurotransmitter by a given presynaptic neuron is referred to as co-localization.

True

Many neurotransmitters are rapidly cleared from the synaptic cleft by reuptake into the presynaptic terminal. A drug that blocks this reuptake, and therefore prolongs the activity of the neurotransmitter, is classified as _____.

an agonist

Benzodiazepines are some of the most frequently prescribed anxiolytic drugs. They bind to sites on GABAA receptors. Benzodiazepines bind to a unique modulatory site on the receptor complex that is distant from where GABA itself binds. Because GABAA receptors are inhibitory, benzodiazepines help GABA to produce larger inhibitory postsynaptic potentials than would be caused by GABA alone. Benzodiazepines are classified as _____.

agonists

A drug that inhibits neurotransmitter storage in synaptic vesicles is classified as _____.

an antagonist

A drug binds to a site on a receptor that is different from the neurotransmitter binding site. Binding of the drug to the receptor activates the receptor. This drug is _____.

noncompetitive agonist and exogenous ligand

The extent to which a drug activates a response when it binds to a receptor is called its __________.

efficacy

Which of the following statements best defines the affinity of a drug?

It is the propensity of molecules of a drug (or other ligands) to bind to receptors.

Drugs with higher potency have a higher effective dose 50% (ED₅₀) than drugs with lower potency.

FALSE

How does the blood-brain barrier impede the action of a drug?

By inhibiting the movement of larger molecules into the brain.

The type of drug tolerance that arises when repeated exposure to the drug causes receptors to be up-regulated or down-regulated is called __________.

functional tolerance

Which of the following factors causes metabolic tolerance to a drug?

The body becomes effective in removing the drug from the bloodstream quickly.

People who have developed tolerance to heroin tend to exhibit a degree of tolerance to all the other drugs in the opiate category, including codeine, morphine, and methadone. This phenomenon is known as __________.

cross-tolerance

What are the benefits of injecting a drug intravenously rather than taking it orally? (Select all that apply.)

• Reduced chance of elimination of the drug

• Increased bioavailability of the drug

• Faster effect of the drug

A(n) __________ is a substance that potentiates the actions of a signaling molecule, whereas a(n) __________ is a substance that blocks or attenuates the actions of a signaling molecule.

agonist; antagonist

A __________ is a drug that, when bound to a receptor, has less effect than the endogenous ligand would.

partial agonist

In what ways do drugs usually disrupt the production of transmitters in the presynaptic neurons? (Select all that apply.)

• By inhibiting an enzyme required for the synthesis

• By blocking axonal transport

The drug reserpine interferes with a cell's ability to __________ the transmitter.

Store

True or False: Compounds that block sodium channels prevent axons from firing action potentials.

True

Which of the following type of drugs specifically block the release of transmitter into the synapse?

Calcium channel blockers

True or False: Adenosine assists caffeine in increasing transmitter release in the synapse.

False: Adenosine is a neuromodulator that is coreleased with the transmitter and acts to reduce further transmitter release.

Which of the following types of psychiatric drugs work by blocking the presynaptic system that normally reabsorbs transmitter molecules after their release?

Reuptake inhibitors

Which of the following drugs affect the postsynaptic cell by blocking receptors?

Haloperidol

Which of the following drugs inhibits the second messenger cyclic AMP?

Lithium

Which of the following is an effect of drugs that stimulate autoreceptors?

A decrease in the release of transmitter

Who among the following is most likely to exhibit an increased activity of the transmitter GABA?

An alcoholic

First-generation antipsychotic drugs are also known as __________.

neuroleptics

Which of the following is true of second-generation antipsychotics? (Select all that apply.)

They act on dopamine as well as serotonin receptors.

They are helpful in relieving negative symptoms of schizophrenia.

Barbiturate drugs—originally used as anxiolytics—were replaced by __________ in the 1970s.

Benzodiazepines

What is the major active substance in opium?

Morphine

Identify the drugs that bind to opioid receptors. (Select all that apply.)

Codeine

Morphine

Heroin

Which of the following areas in the brain contains a very high density of opioid receptors and is the site where opiates exert much of their painkilling effects?

The periaqueductal gray

What are the major families of endogenous opioids? (Select all that apply.)

• The dynorphins

• The endorphins

• The enkephalins

Which of the following are the drawbacks of barbiturates? (Select all that apply.)

They are addictive.

They are easy to overdose on.

__________ is an enzyme that breaks down monoamine transmitters such as dopamine, serotonin, and norepinephrine.

Monoamine oxidase

What is the term for a type of drug that reduces the excitability of neurons?

Depressant

Which of the following drugs are stimulants? (Select all that apply.)

• Nicotine

• Cocaine

• Amphetamine

True or False: Stimulants such as methylphenidate worsen the symptoms of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD).

False: Stimulants such as methylphenidate reduce the symptoms of ADHD and help people focus.

Nicotine enters blood and brain most rapidly when tobacco is consumed in the form of __________.

cigarettes

Nicotine acts as an agonist of __________ receptors.

Cholinergic

Which of the following are the actions of methamphetamine? (Select all that apply.)

It acts within axon terminals to cause a larger-than-normal release of neurotransmitter.

It interferes with the clearance of the released transmitter by blocking its reuptake and metabolic breakdown.

Drugs that alter sensory perception and produce peculiar experiences are called __________.

hallucinogens

Which of the following statements are true of lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD)? (Select all that apply.)

It structurally resembles serotonin.

It activates 5-HT_2A receptors that are predominantly found in the visual cortex.

It is a hallucinogen.

Which of the following drugs are hallucinogens? (Select all that apply.)

• Psilocybin

• Muscarine

• Mescaline

True or False: An endocannabinoid is an endogenous ligand of cannabinoid receptors, thus an analog of cannabis that is produced by the brain.

True

A(n) __________ is a drug that tips the balance toward the excitatory side, with an overall alerting, activating effect.

stimulant

True or False: Females are more likely than males to engage in substance abuse.

False: Males are more likely than females to engage in substance abuse.

Which of the following patterns of alcohol use are listed in the diagnostic criteria for alcohol use disorder in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, fifth edition (DSM-5)? (Select all that apply.)

• Development of tolerance for alcohol

• A persistent desire or unsuccessful efforts to cut down or control alcohol use

Recurrent alcohol use in situations in which it is physically hazardous

True or False: Modern morality-based campaigns have a substantial effect on rates of drug abuse.

False: There is little evidence that modern morality-based campaigns—Project D.A.R.E., for example—have a substantial effect on rates of drug abuse.

The research based on the __________ model of substance abuse focuses on looking for pathological states that create addiction after initial exposure to a drug.

disease

Which of the following parts of the brain play an important role in addiction? (Select all that apply.)

• The nucleus accumbens

• The insula

Which of the following are the major risk factors for addiction? (Select all that apply.)

Personality factors

Biological factors

Environmental factors

Poor family life

Which of the following drugs help reduce withdrawal symptoms? (Select all that apply.)

Anti-nausea medications

Sedatives

Benzodiazepines

How does disulfiram (Antabuse) help people who are addicted to alcohol when they are trying to quit drinking?

It changes the way alcohol is metabolized and produces unpleasurable effects.

A person addicted to heroin has tried to quit using the drug many times. However, every time, the person ends up taking the drug again because quitting causes serious problems such as insomnia, agitation, severe anxiety, abdominal cramping, nausea, and vomiting. In the given scenario, trying to quit causes the addicted person to experience __________.

withdrawal symptoms

Leslie is trying to quit drugs and facing severe withdrawal symptoms. Leslie's family is concerned that the symptoms are so severe that they will lead to a relapse. The doctor tells Leslie that there are a few ways to reduce the severity of withdrawal symptoms. Which of the following options might Leslie's doctor prescribe in the given scenario? (Select all that apply.)

Drugs that promote sleep

Noninvasive stimulation of prefrontal cortex

Anti-nausea medications

Nicotine binds to and activates the acetylcholine (ACh) receptor. When a drug does this, what is the term for this type of activity?

Agonist

What is the term for the addition of receptors on the postsynaptic membrane, as shown at number 3?

Up-regulation

This model argues that people keep taking drugs in order to avoid unpleasant withdrawal symptoms

The physical dependence model

This model proposes that people begin taking drugs, and then get addicted because the abused drugs provides powerful reinforcement

The positive reward model

This model takes the view that the person who abuses drugs requires medical treatment, rather than punishment

The disease model

In this model, substance abuse is blamed on weakness of character and lack of self-control

The moral model

Many addictive drugs cause release of the neurotransmitter ________ in the _______ _______ part of the brain’s naturally existing reward circuitry.

Dopamine; nucleus accumbens

Which of the following is a difference between an excitatory synapse and an inhibitory synapse?

When a neurotransmitter binds to receptors, the postsynaptic neuron in an excitatory synapse becomes more likely to generate an action potential, whereas in an inhibitory synapse, it becomes less likely to generate an action potential.

Identify the similarities between ionotropic receptors and metabotropic receptors? (Select all that apply.)

Both have diverse receptor subtypes.

Both are located in the cell membrane of the postsynaptic cell.

When activated, metabotropic receptors initiate a two-step signaling process involving G proteins. Identify the potential effects brought about by this process. (Select all that apply.)

Changes in excitability of the postsynaptic cell

Altered gene expression

Opening of nearby ion channels

Identify the properties of gas neurotransmitters. (Select all that apply.)

They are not stored in synaptic vesicles.

They can convey information that is used to physically change a synapse.

They do not bind to receptors in the postsynaptic cell.

Function of Acetylcholine

Important for learning and memory and muscle contraction.

Function of Dopamine

Important for motor function and reward.

Function of Serotonin

Involved in regulating a wide range of behaviors, like mood, vision, sleep, and sexual behavior.

Function of Norepinephrine

Important in sympathetic nervous system; provides an alerting and arousing function in the brain.

You have identified a new substance in the brain that is released from the axon terminals of presynaptic neurons when the action potential arrives, but it is not recognized by receptors on the postsynaptic membrane. Can you classify this new substance as a neurotransmitter?

No, because it is not recognized by receptors on the postsynaptic membrane.

Which of the following properties of a drug determine its overall action? (Select all that apply.)

Efficacy

Affinity

After repeated doses of agonist opioids such as morphine or opium, the body develops a tolerance toward opioids. Which of the following changes accounts for this tolerance?

Down-regulation of receptors