Superpower Relations & the Cold War

Causes of Conferences (1943–1945)

• USA and West capitalist (democracy, higher standard of living) vs USSR communist (lack of freedom, lower standard of living).

• Grand Alliance formed in 1941 (USA, USSR, Britain) despite different ideologies to defeat Germany.

• Relationship of convenience: “The enemy of my enemy is my friend.”

Events of the Tehran Conference (November 1943)

Who present - Stalin, Churchill & Roosevelt What agreed – Second Front (D-Day invasion of France would take place in summer 1944. Germany and Berlin – 4 zones. Promised free elections for liberated states (countries freed from the Nazis). War crimes trials. United Nations to be set up. USSR to join the war against Japan after Germany defeated. Relations positive – working together to defeat Germany. Even so never going to keep a cooperative relationship once Germany beaten due to different ideas about how to run a country.

Events of the Yalta Conference (Feb 1945)

Who present - Stalin, Churchill & Roosevelt What agreed – Germany and Berlin – 4 zones. Promised free elections for liberated states (countries freed from the Nazis by USSR). War crimes trials. USSR to join the war against Japan. Set up UN. Disagreements – how to treat Germany – USSR wanted to punish severely – harsh reparations – USA and Britain didn’t wanted to be less harsh – Stalin wanted to keep USSR safe from attack after WW2 Consequences - Disagreements plus different ideas about how to run a country (ideologies) contributed to early tension. Would USSR keep its promises? By Potsdam clear they wouldn’t.

Events of the Potsdam Conference (July 1945)

Changes from Yalta Stalin hasn’t held free elections. Atlee, Truman, Stalin. Germany defeated. Atomic bomb revealed. Truman strong anti-communist whereas Roosevelt had a positive working relationship with Stalin. What agreed – Free elections (democracy) in Germany. War crime trials. Set up UN. Disagreed – free elections in east including Poland. Stalin wanted to punish Germany (reparations) Western Allies disagreed. Consequences – Stalin angry A-bomb kept secret – supposed to be a friend and ally; arms race began between the two superpowers – race to build bigger and more destructive weapons – USSR immediately raced to build its own atomic bomb to keep up with the USA. Disagreements plus A-bomb contributed to greater distrust and pulling in different directions. Stalin fearful of US and wanted to protect USSR from attack so set up buffer zone in Eastern Europe.

Consequences of Conferences (1943–1945)[TAB]

Early tension due to disagreements and ideological differences. Stalin angry A-bomb kept secret; arms race began. USSR set up buffer zone in Eastern Europe; distrust increased.

Causes of Telegrams (1946)[TAB]

Rising distrust between USA and USSR.

Events of Telegrams (1946)[TAB]

Long Telegram:

George Kennan, American ambassador in Moscow, reported Stalin preparing for war, wanted destruction of capitalism, hostile towards non-communist countries.

Novikov Telegram:

Novikov, Soviet ambassador in Washington, reported USA wanted to dominate world and destroy communism; Roosevelt’s death meant USA no longer supported USSR.

Consequences of Telegrams (1946)[TAB]

Increased hostility; mutual suspicion grew. Highlighted ideological divide and fear of expansion.

Causes of Iron Curtain Speech (1946)[TAB]

USSR spreading communism. Divisions between free West and unfree Communist East.

Events of Iron Curtain Speech (1946)[TAB]

Churchill delivered speech (with Truman’s agreement) stating USSR was a threat to world peace. Stalin responded, comparing Truman & Churchill to Hitler.

Consequences of Iron Curtain Speech (1946)[TAB]

Openly intensified hostility; for the first time, public criticism. Divided world into two blocs.

Causes of Truman Doctrine (1947)[TAB]

Communism spreading (Greek Civil War). Britain unable to support Greek government against Greek communists.

Events of Truman Doctrine (1947)[TAB]

Announced by President Harry S. Truman, March 1947. Containment policy: communism must be stopped from spreading or domino effect would occur. USA would give military aid to any country resisting communist takeover.

Consequences of Truman Doctrine (1947)[TAB]

Stalin saw it as threat to destroy communism. Led to creation of Cominform in 1947.

Causes of Marshall Plan / Marshall Aid (1947)[TAB]

Europe devastated after WW2; poor countries vulnerable to communism. USA wanted to encourage preference for freedom and higher standard of living instead of communism.

Events of Marshall Plan / Marshall Aid (1947)[TAB]

Proposed by George C. Marshall June 1947. USA lent money 1948–1952 ($12.7bn aid + $13bn to devastated countries). Aid included grain, machinery, technological assistance, money; USA invested in businesses. Satellite states banned from receiving aid by Stalin.

Consequences of Marshall Plan / Marshall Aid (1947)[TAB]

Western Europe standard of living improved; US influence increased. Spread containment of communism. Stalin saw as bribery; refused Eastern Europe access, deepened distrust. Led to Comecon (1949).

Causes of Stalin’s control of Eastern Europe (late 1940s)[TAB]

USSR wanted buffer zone; protect USSR from attack. Spread communism in Europe.

Events of Stalin’s control of Eastern Europe (late 1940s)[TAB]

Rigged elections, propaganda against capitalism. Forced non-communist parties to share power then removed. Arrested, imprisoned, killed. Satellite states: Poland, Hungary, Czechoslovakia (except Yugoslavia – Tito resisted). USSR kept troops in Satellite states.

Consequences of Stalin’s control of Eastern Europe (late 1940s)[TAB]

Truman believed USSR trying to take over Europe; could not be trusted. Disagreements over ideology and free elections confirmed.

Causes of Berlin Blockade (1948–1949)[TAB]

Western Allies combining US, British, French zones into Trizonia. Introduction of new currency in Trizonia. Marshall Aid pumped into Trizonia. Western zones of Berlin seen as temptation; “shop window” showing benefits of West. Stalin wanted weak Germany, communist control over Berlin.

Events of Berlin Blockade (1948–1949)[TAB]

Stalin blockaded all land/rail routes into West Berlin. Airlift: UK/US planes flew supplies for nearly a year; specific routes to avoid being shot down.

Consequences of Berlin Blockade (1948–1949)[TAB]

Deepened East-West divide. Berlin symbol of divided Europe. West Germany set up; USSR refused to recognize until 1970s. Propaganda victory for West; USSR appeared aggressive. Led to creation of NATO.

Causes of Berlin Airlift (1948–1949)[TAB]

Stalin blockaded all land and rail access to West Berlin to enforce communist control. Western Allies refused to give in to Soviet pressure. West Berlin seen as a symbol of capitalism vs communism; Stalin wanted it under Soviet control.

Events of Berlin Airlift (1948–1949)[TAB]

UK and US planes flew supplies into West Berlin for nearly a year. Supplies included food, fuel, and essential goods. Planes followed specific routes to avoid being shot down.

Consequences of Berlin Airlift (1948–1949)[TAB]

Deepened the divide between East and West Germany. Showed USA would honor the Truman Doctrine and stop the spread of communism. West Germany established; East Germany established (USSR refused to recognize West Germany until 1970s, and West refused to recognize East Germany until 1970s). Propaganda victory for the West: West Berliners were “saved,” making Stalin look like the “baddie.”

Causes of Creation of NATO (1949)[TAB]

Western European countries scared of communism and Soviet aggression. Need for collective security and protection against USSR.

Events of Creation of NATO (1949)[TAB]

13 western countries joined initially, including USA and Great Britain. Defensive alliance backed by US money and armed forces.

Consequences of Creation of NATO (1949)[TAB]

Seen by USSR as aggressive; increased tensions. Led USSR to create Warsaw Pact (1955) in response.

Causes of Nuclear Arms Race (1950s–1960s)[TAB]

USA had atomic bombs (Hiroshima & Nagasaki). USSR wanted to keep up and ensure security. Competition between capitalism and communism; fear of domination.

Events of Nuclear Arms Race (1950s–1960s)[TAB]

1949 – USSR tested its first atomic bomb.

1952 – USA exploded first H-bomb (more powerful than atomic bomb).

1953 – USSR exploded first H-bomb.

1957 – USSR tested first ICBM.

1958 – USA tested first ICBM.

1968 – USA built MIRVs (multiple warheads on one missile).

1967–1968 – Space Race and ABMs developed.

Consequences of Nuclear Arms Race (1950s–1960s)[TAB]

MAD (Mutually Assured Destruction) became possible. Massive defence spending by both superpowers. Increased fear and tension globally. Triggered arms control talks (Partial Test Ban, SALT later).

Causes of Hungarian Uprising (1956)[TAB]

Lack of freedom and poor standard of living: non-communists eliminated, secret police (AVH), repression of religion, Russian language forced, Soviet troops stationed in Hungary. Economic hardship: Comecon control, 5-Year Plans didn’t improve living standards, land and resources sent to USSR. Khrushchev’s “Secret Speech” encouraged hopes for more freedom.

Events of Hungarian Uprising (1956)[TAB]

June 1956 – protests against Rakosi; Rakosi replaced by Erno Gero. Soviets allowed Imre Nagy to form new government. Nagy introduced reforms: free elections, fair legal system, total withdrawal of Soviet army, farmers allowed private land ownership, Hungary to leave Warsaw Pact and declare neutrality. Soviet crackdown: thousands of tanks & soldiers entered Hungary, non-violent resistance crushed, Nagy arrested and executed, Janos Kadar installed.

Consequences of Hungarian Uprising (1956)[TAB]

UN condemned Soviet actions; aid raised for refugees. Communist parties in Italy, Britain, France distanced from USSR. No US/NATO military intervention. Discouraged other rebellions in Eastern Europe. Demonstrated Khrushchev wasn’t as pro-West as “Secret Speech” suggested.

Causes of Cuban Revolution (1959)[TAB]

Corrupt Cuban government; USA had troops and major business investments. Anti-capitalist Fidel Castro led revolution to overthrow Batista government.

Events of Cuban Revolution (1959)[TAB]

Castro took power by force, expelled US businesses.

Consequences of Cuban Revolution (1959)[TAB]

Castro angered USA: sugar exports refused by US. USSR bought Cuban sugar and provided economic aid. Cuba became a communist country just 90 miles from the USA. Set the stage for future tension, including Bay of Pigs and Cuban Missile Crisis.

Causes of Bay of Pigs Invasion (1961)[TAB]

USA wanted to overthrow Castro; anti-Castro Cuban exiles supported. CIA planned invasion to replace Castro with pro-American government.

Events of Bay of Pigs Invasion (1961)[TAB]

April 1961 – 1,400 Cuban exiles landed with CIA support. Plan failed: Castro popular, invasion poorly planned, no US air support, defenders outnumbered invaders.

Consequences of Bay of Pigs Invasion (1961)[TAB]

Kennedy/USA embarrassed; invasion failed. Pushed Castro closer to USSR; Castro declared Cuba communist in December 1961. Heightened tension between USA and USSR; strategic advantage for USSR with Cuba as a base.

Causes of Vienna Summit (1961)[TAB]

JFK, new US President, promised to stand firm against communism. Khrushchev thought he could intimidate JFK and reissued Berlin Ultimatum.

Events of Vienna Summit (1961)[TAB]

Meeting in Vienna between JFK and Khrushchev. Khrushchev demanded West leave Berlin; JFK refused.

Consequences of Vienna Summit (1961)[TAB]

Increased tension. Both sides committed to major increases in defence spending, nuclear and conventional weapons. Arms race intensified.

Causes of Building of the Berlin Wall (1961)[TAB]

Brain drain: millions leaving East Germany for West. East Berliners attracted to higher standard of living, more freedom, better jobs in West.

Events of Building of the Berlin Wall (1961)[TAB]

August 1961 – Wall built; East-West Berlin physically divided.

Consequences of Building of the Berlin Wall (1961)[TAB]

Flow of refugees stopped. East Germans trapped in East Berlin; propaganda win for West. Symbol of global division: free West vs communist East. War avoided due to MAD deterrent.

Causes of Cuban Missile Crisis (1962)[TAB]

USSR placed long-range missile sites in Cuba; US discovered via spy plane on 14 Oct 1962. USA feared nuclear threat from 90 miles away.

Events of Cuban Missile Crisis (1962)[TAB]

22 Oct – JFK announced naval blockade (quarantine) around Cuba. US forces on 24-hour nuclear alert.

24 Oct – 18 Soviet ships turned back.

26–27 Oct – Khrushchev sent letters offering missile removal if blockade lifted / US removed missiles from Turkey.

28 Oct – JFK accepted first letter; secret agreement to remove missiles from Turkey later.

Consequences of Cuban Missile Crisis (1962)[TAB]

Khrushchev weakened politically; eventually replaced in 1964. JFK gained reputation as saviour; avoided nuclear war. Led to détente, hotline set up, arms limitation talks (Partial Test Ban 1963).

Causes of Prague Spring (1968)[TAB]

Hard-line communist leader Novotny unpopular. Lack of freedom: censorship of press. Czech economy weak; USSR controlled economy through Comecon for its own benefit. Czech farmers had to follow Communist Party guidance; modernisation discouraged. Some Czechs believed USA would help them if they stood up to Moscow.

Events of Prague Spring (1968)[TAB]

1967 – Protests led to Dubcek becoming leader. Dubcek introduced “socialism with a Human Face”: Capitalist economic ideas. Freedom of speech. Trade with West Germany allowed. Travel to West Germany allowed. Non-communist parties could be set up; free elections proposed. Czechoslovakia to remain in Warsaw Pact but welcomed Tito of Yugoslavia. 1968 – 500,000 Soviet and Satellite troops (East Germany, Poland) invaded. Dubcek encouraged non-violent resistance: flowers to troops. Dubcek and supporters removed; replaced with hardline communists. Dubcek not executed.

Consequences of Prague Spring (1968)[TAB]

Brezhnev Doctrine: Satellite states could not leave Warsaw Pact or dilute one-party communism; force could be used. Yugoslav and Romanian governments spoke out; made closer links with China. French and Italian Communist parties rejected USSR leadership; looked to China instead. USA condemned invasion but offered no military support; involved in Vietnam.

Causes of Détente (1970s)[TAB]

Arms race nearly led to nuclear war. Need to reduce tension between USA and USSR. Recognition that full confrontation too dangerous due to MAD.

Events of Détente (1970s)[TAB]

1972 – SALT I signed (ABMs limited, 5-year freeze on ICBMs/SLBMs, satellite checks). 1974 – Nixon visited Moscow; agreed to reduce arms, relax tensions, develop economic/scientific/cultural cooperation. 1975 – Apollo-Soyuz joint space link up (3 US + 2 Soviet astronauts).

1975 – Helsinki Agreements: security (mutual recognition of borders), cooperation (economic/scientific/cultural links), human rights respected.

Consequences of Détente (1970s)[TAB]

Reduced tension, encouraged arms limitation talks. USSR recognized West Germany; USA recognized East Germany. Cooperation in multiple areas improved trust.

Causes of Summit Meetings (1970s)[TAB]

Ongoing Cold War tensions. Desire to prevent nuclear war and improve relations.

Events of Summit Meetings (1970s)[TAB]

1972 – SALT I. 1974 – Nixon in Moscow (arms reduction, easing tension, co-operation). 1975 – Apollo-Soyuz space link. 1975 – Helsinki Agreements (security, cooperation, human rights).

Consequences of Summit Meetings (1970s)[TAB]

Showed possibility of co-operation. Built trust for future treaties (SALT II).

Causes of Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan (1979)[TAB]

Civil war in Afghanistan (1978): Afghan communists vs extreme Muslims (Mujahadeen). Brezhnev concerned about spread of Islamic fundamentalism inside USSR. Leader Amin initially friendly to USSR, then started friendly to USA.

Events of Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan (1979)[TAB]

25 Dec 1979 – 1 Jan 1980: 50,000+ Soviet troops sent to restore communist government, replace Amin with Kamal loyal to USSR. 35,000 additional Soviet troops needed due to desertions.

Consequences of Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan (1979)[TAB]

Ended détente. USA refused to ratify SALT II; exports of grain and hi-tech equipment to USSR stopped. USA boycotted Moscow Olympics (1980). Carter Doctrine: support to stop communism spreading near Gulf; weapons and training to Mujahadeen. Colossal cost for USSR; contributed to later economic collapse.

Causes of President Reagan’s reaction to USSR (1980s)[TAB]

USSR’s continued expansionism, Afghanistan invasion, arms race. Belief that détente failed.

Events of President Reagan’s reaction to USSR (1980s)[TAB]

1980s – Reagan tougher line than Carter: defeat communism, not settle for draw. 8 June 1982 – Called USSR an “evil empire” in British House of Commons. 1981–87 – Increased defence spending: stealth bomber, 6 Trident nuclear submarines, neutron bomb, Cruise missiles in Western Europe. 1983 – Star Wars (SDI): laser-based anti-missile system.

Consequences of President Reagan’s reaction to USSR (1980s)[TAB]

Star Wars worried USSR; MAD threatened to be undermined. USSR could not afford similar programme; economic strain. Cold War tensions increased; Reagan forcing USSR to recognize it could not win arms race.

Causes of Gorbachev’s “new thinking” (1980s)[TAB]

USSR bankrupt from arms race, space race, Afghanistan war. Need to save money, win over Soviet people. Desire to maintain communism but allow reform.

Events of Gorbachev’s “new thinking” (1980s)[TAB]

1985 – Gorbachev becomes leader. Policies: Perestroika (Western-style business, political reforms, local elections), Glasnost (openness, criticism of government allowed, secret police restricted). Sinatra Doctrine – relaxed Soviet control over Satellite States; abandon Brezhnev Doctrine.

Consequences of Gorbachev’s “new thinking” (1980s)[TAB]

People demanded more freedom. Encouraged 1989 “Year of Freedom” in Eastern Europe. Gorbachev signaling USSR wouldn’t intervene; Satellite States began to act independently.

Causes of Fall of the Berlin Wall (1989)[TAB]

Success of Perestroika, Glasnost, Sinatra Doctrine. Poland held free elections; non-Communist government elected. Hungary opened border with Austria; East Germans fled to West. Pressure from Eastern European citizens demanding freedom.

Events of Fall of the Berlin Wall (1989)[TAB]

9 November 1989 – Border between East and West Berlin opened. Over 1 million people crossed per day in following days.

Consequences of Fall of the Berlin Wall (1989)[TAB]

Symbolized collapse of Communist control in Eastern Europe. Germany officially reunified in 1990; joined NATO.

Causes of Collapse of Soviet control over Eastern Europe (late 1980s – 1991)[TAB]

Political and economic reforms under Gorbachev. Pressure from Eastern European states following Poland, Hungary, and Berlin Wall events. Nationalist movements in Baltic states.

Events of Collapse of Soviet control over Eastern Europe (late 1980s – 1991)[TAB]

1990 – Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania declared independence; accepted by Gorbachev. 1990 – Warsaw Pact dissolved. 1991 – Communist hard-liners attempted coup against Gorbachev; failed. 25 December 1991 – Gorbachev resigned. USSR split into several independent states.

Consequences of Collapse of Soviet control over Eastern Europe (late 1980s – 1991)[TAB]

End of the Cold War. Eastern Europe free from Soviet control; countries joined NATO. START (1990–91) agreed: 25–35% reduction in nuclear warheads over 7 years.