Social & Organizational Psychology: The Self

A set of vocabulary flashcards covering key psychological theories and concepts related to 'The Self', including self-schemas, social comparison theories, self-motives, and cultural influences.

Self-recognition test

A test passed around $18-24$ months of age that marks the emergence of a sense of self in infancy.

Schema

A cognitive structure that represents knowledge about a certain concept or thing.

Self-schema

A complex cognitive structure comprising attributes and identities central to how we think about ourselves, which organizes beliefs and guides attention and memory.

Self-reference effect

The phenomenon where we encode and remember information better when we relate it to the self.

Self-Perception Theory

Bem's ($1972$) theory stating that we gain insight into the self by observing, interpreting, and drawing inferences from our own freely chosen behavior.

Looking-Glass Self

Cooley's ($1902$) concept that we gain self-insight by observing and reflecting upon other people's reactions to us, often studied as reflected appraisals.

Social Comparison Theory

Festinger's ($1954$) theory that we learn about our attributes and abilities by comparing ourselves with others to evaluate our relative standing.

Upward comparisons

Comparing oneself to those perceived as superior, which can lead to negative affect or self-improvement motivation $(\text{pushing})$.

Downward comparisons

Comparing oneself to those perceived as inferior, which typically results in positive affect, an ego-boost, or potential coasting.

Temporal comparisons

Comparing the self at two different points in time, such as the present self versus the past self.

Dimensional comparisons

Comparing the self on two different domains, such as verbal ability versus math ability.

Social Identity Theory

Tajfel & Turner's ($1979$) theory that a sense of self is derived from the social groups to which we feel we belong.

Self-categorization

The process where individuals see themselves in terms of group memberships depending on the context, also known as social identity salience.

Structural fit

A condition for identity salience where a social identity accounts for similarities or differences between the self and others in a given context.

Normative fit

A condition for identity salience where a social identity explains why an individual behaves in a particular way in a given context.

Positive distinctiveness

The motivation to achieve and maintain a positive, distinct social identity through group-based social comparison.

Self-Discrepancy Theory

Higgins's ($1987$) theory that the self-concept includes the actual self, the ought self, and the ideal self.

Actual self

How we think we currently are.

Ought self

How we think we should be, based on self-imposed standards or others' expectations.

Ideal self

How we would like to be, including various hopes and wishes.

Actual-ideal discrepancy

A gap between how one is and how one wants to be, leading to dejection-related emotions like disappointment and sadness.

Actual-ought discrepancy

A gap between how one is and how one should be, leading to agitation-related emotions like anxiety and fear.

Self-assessment

The motive to seek true, accurate, and valid information about the self.

Self-enhancement

The motive to seek and favor positive information about the self while dismissing negative information.

Self-verification

The motive to seek information that confirms existing beliefs about the self, even if those beliefs are negative.

Global self-esteem

A general, overall evaluation of how one feels about and values the self.

Domain-specific self-esteem

Self-evaluations tied to specific areas of life, which can influence or be influenced by global self-esteem.

Sociometer Theory

The theory that self-esteem acts as a psychological gauge of the degree to which an individual is valued and accepted by others.

Self-Determination Theory

Deci & Ryan's ($2008$) theory that the self thrives when the needs for competence, relatedness, and autonomy are supported.

Competence $(\text{SDT})$

A sense of mastery and effectiveness in one's environment and activities.

Relatedness $(\text{SDT})$

A sense of belonging and connectedness to others.

Autonomy $(\text{SDT})$

A sense of control and choice over one's own behaviors and goals.

Private self

How an individual actually is and how they see themselves internally.

Public self

How an individual thinks they come across to others and how they are viewed by the public.

Spotlight effect

The tendency to believe we are being noticed by others more than we actually are.

Impression management

The use of strategies to monitor and control appearance or behavior to be viewed by others in a specific way.

Ingratiation

An impression management strategy used to get others to like you, showing a correlation of $r = .41$ with interviewer assessments.

Self-promotion

An impression management strategy intended to get others to respect you and think of you as competent.

Intimidation

An impression management strategy used to get others to fear you or view you as dangerous.

Supplication

An impression management strategy where one tries to get others to take pity on them by appearing helpless and needy.

Exemplification

An impression management strategy used to get others to regard one as morally respectable.

Self-monitoring

Snyder's ($1974$) concept of an individual's ability or concern with adjusting self-presentation in response to social cues.

Self-enhancing bias

The tendency to attribute success to internal or dispositional factors.

Self-protecting bias

The tendency to attribute failure to external or situational factors.

Self-handicapping

The act of claiming or creating an external impediment to performance to provide an excuse for potential failure or bolster success.

Independent self-construal

A self-concept separate from the social context, prioritizing uniqueness and personal goals, commonly found in individualistic cultures.

Interdependent self-construal

A self-concept tied to the social context, prioritizing belonging, harmony, and collective goals.