Political Study

Mometrix p. 133

Theories on the Origin of the State

Evolutionary, Force, Divine Right, Social Contract

Evolutionary

theory suggesting that the state evolved from family structures and social groups. The head of state would be the equivalent of the family’s patriarch or matriarch.

Divine Right

theory asserting that a monarch's authority comes directly from God, making them accountable only to divine judgment.

Social Contract

theory proposing that individuals consent, either explicitly or implicitly, to form a society and establish a government, thereby sacrificing some freedoms for protection and social order. No natural order. If the government fails to protect its people, the people have the right to seek new leaders.

Aristotle and Plato

They believed political science would lead to order in political matters, and that this scientifically organized order would create stable and just societies.

Thomas Aquinas

• adapted the ideas of Aristotle to a Christian perspective.

• individuals have certain rights, but also certain duties, and that these rights and duties should determine the type and extent of government rule.

• Laid the groundwork for ideas that would eventually become modern constitutionalism.

Niccolo Machiavelli

• author of The Prince

• proponent of politics based solely on power.

Thomas Hobbes

• author of The Leviathan (1651)

• believed the state must work to control the urge of people, as they were focused solely on the quest for power

• believed people were completely unable to live harmoniously without the intervention of government

John Locke

• Two Treaties of Civil Government (1690)

• argued against Thomas Hobbes

• Theory of Tabula Rasa - people are born with minds that are a blank state. Experience molds individual needs, not innate knowledge or intuition.

• Believed men are good, independent, and equal.

• ideas contributed to the U.S. Constitution

• emphasized natural rights, including life, liberty, and property, which governments should protect. His ideas laid the foundations for modern democracy.

Montesquieu and Rousseau

• Montesquieu was a French political philosopher known for his theory of separation of powers, while Rousseau was a philosopher who emphasized the importance of the social contract and individual freedom.

• heavily influenced the French Revolution (1789-1815)

• individual freedom and community welfare are of equal importance

• man’s innate goodness leads to natural harmony

• reason develops with the rise of a civilized society

• individual citizens carry certain obligations to the existing government

David Hume

• rejected the social contract

• pointed out that almost all real states were founded on conquest, usurpation, or force, not peaceful consent.

• argued that governments originate from historical necessity and that human nature leads to the formation of governments for stability and order.

Jeremy Bentham

• English philosopher and jurist known for founding utilitarianism. He advocated for the principle of the greatest happiness, emphasizing the moral worth of actions based on their contribution to overall utility.

• Believed people obey the state because the utility of government (order, laws, safety) outweighs the utility of anarchy.

John Stuart Mill

• British philosopher and political economist, known for his contributions to liberalism and utilitarianism. He expanded on Bentham's ideas, emphasizing individual liberty and the importance of personal development.

• the state’s origin and ongoing purpose are to provide the social conditions necessary for individual moral and intellectual development.

• government is an instrument to prevent individuals from harming one another while maximizing personal liberty.

Johann Gottlieb Fichte

• argued that an individual cannot truly be self-conscious or free in a vacuum, to realize your own freedom, you must recognize the freedom of others and they must recognize yours (Anerkennung).

• Humans cannot permanently trust each other to respect this freedom based on good intentions alone, therefore must create a legally binding mechanism.

• state originates from a “property contract” and a “protection contract” where everyone mutually agrees to limit their own external freedom just enough to guarantee the freedom of everyone else.

Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel

• German philosopher who developed a comprehensive framework for understanding history, society, and reality through the lens of dialectical progression. Hegel proposed that the evolution of ideas and societies occurs through conflicts between opposing forces, ultimately leading to a synthesis.

• three-part dialectical structure:

  • the family: a sphere of natural affection and altruism, but lacks individuality

  • civil society: a sphere of universal selfishness where individuals treat each other as tools to get what they want, losing the communal bond.

  • the state: the culmination that unites both. It restores the communal focus of the family while preserving the individual freedom of civil society.

  • called the state "the march of God in the world"—meaning it is the objective institutional framework that allows human beings to live as fully rational, free, and ethical moral agents. Without the state, true objective freedom cannot exist.

Types of Government

• Anarchism

• Communism

• Dictatorship

• Fascism

• Monarchy

• Presidential System

• Socialism

• Totalitarian

• Authoritarian

• Parliamentary

• Democratic

Anarchism

• all government should be eliminated and individuals should rule themselves

• historically used violence and assassination to further beliefs

Communism

• based on class conflict, revolution, and a one-party state.

• would involve a single government for the entire world.

• controls the production and flow of goods and services rather than leaving this to companies or individuals.

Dictatorship

• rule by a single individual

• who wields absolute power and authority, often without the consent of the governed, and may use force to maintain control.

Oligarchy

• a form of power structure in which power resides in the hands of a small number of people, often based on wealth, family ties, or military control.

Fascism

• a far-right, authoritarian ultranationalism characterized by dictatorial power, forcible suppression of opposition, and strong regimentation of society and the economy.

• power lies in “the cult of personality”

• often emphasizes an expansive national identity, promoting the supremacy of the state over individual rights.

Monarchy

• major form of government for europe throughout history

• led by king or queen, hereditary, rulers not elected

• a form of government where a single ruler, typically a king or queen, holds power that is usually inherited. Monarchs may have varying degrees of authority, from absolute power to constitutional limits.

Constitutional Monarchy

• a system of government in which a monarch shares power with a constitutionally organized government (they make government decisions), often with a parliamentary system, and the monarch's powers are limited by law.

Presidential System

• a system of government where a president serves as both the head of state and the head of government, distinct from the legislature, and is often elected by the public.

• Election can be direct or indirect

• In this system, the president has significant authority over the executive branch, often with the ability to veto legislation and appoint cabinet members.

Authoritarian

• practice widespread state authority, but do not necessarily dismantle all public institutions.

Totalitarian System

• believes everything should be under control of the government

• a political system in which the state holds total authority over society and regulates nearly every aspect of public and private life, often through coercive means.

Socialism

• state controls production of goods, though it does not necessarily control all means of production.

• A political and economic system where the government owns and regulates resources and industries to promote equitable distribution of wealth.

Parliamentary System

• A political system in which the government is elected by a parliament, and the executive derives its democratic legitimacy from, and is directly accountable to, the legislature.

• a head of state can be elected, or taken by a monarch, like in Great Britain’s constitutional monarchy system.

Democratic system

• A political system in which the government is elected by the people, promoting participation and representation in decision-making.

• Direct: each issue or election is voted on directly by the citizens individually, rather than elected representatives.

• Indirect: citizens elect representatives to make decisions on their behalf.

• The US is a presidential, indirect democracy.

Theory of Realism

• nations are by nature aggressive and work in their own self-interest.

• relations between nations are determined by military and economic strength.

• nation is seen as the highest authority.

• the security dilemma: states must compete for power and security, often escalating conflicts even when neither side desires it.

Liberalism

• states can cooperate, build wealth, and achieve peace through shared values and mutual benefit.

• democratic peace theory: the idea that democracies are less likely to go to war with one another, promoting stability and peace among democratic nations.

• economic interdependence (global trade) makes war too costly and irrational

Institutionalism

• a theory that emphasizes the role of international institutions in promoting peace and cooperation among states, including rules, norms, and organizations that facilitate collective action.

Constuctivism

• based on international cooperation, but recognizes that perceptions countries have of one another can affect relations.

• This theory focuses on how social constructions, identities, and norms shape state behavior and the international system.