chapter six

what are the three kinds of lymphocytes

natural killer cells, b-cells, and t-cells

what are the two kind of t-cells

killer and helper

what are phagocytes

types of cells that eat other cells

what are the two types of phagocytes

macrophages and neutrophils

what is the deal with dendritic cells

they were how the covid vaccine was made; read messenger rna and made antibodies

what is the lymphatic system

tissue components of blood that aren’t red blood cells and platelets

where are leukocytes made

in bone marrow (thigh) and thymus (chest)

what do leukocytes do

circulate the blood stream after production, some of the cells will leak through capillaries and enter lymphatic system

what do lymph nodes do

clean out lymphatic system of cellular debris, bacteria, and dust

what are the two response systems of the lymphatic system

humoral and cell-mediated

what is the humoral response system

occurs in blood, where antibodies are circulating

what are cytokines

proteins that coordinate immune response (by signaling molecules of invader) and promoting inflammation; facilitating chemotaxis

what do chemotaxis do

attracts other immune cells to come hither

what do red blood cells do (circulatory system)

contain hemoglobin that binds oxygen and carries it through the body, also carbon dioxide to the lungs

what are platelets

thrombocytes (fragments) that facilitate blood clotting

what is a stem cell

an undifferentiated cell (can become anything)

what is the primary function of the immune system

defend against foreign substances that the body encounters

who is the invader in the immune system

antigen

example of the non-specific immune response

cutting yourself with a knife (punctured barrier)

what are the two mechanisms of the non-specific response

phagocytosis and inflammation

what is phagocytosis

when cells engulf and destroy invaders

what are the two type of phagocytes

neutrophils and macrophages

what do neutrophils do

swarm to site of infection in response to signals of invading molecules and inflammation; release cytotoxins

what are the three inflammation signals

histamine, bradykinin, and prostaglandins

what is puss

an infection of dead neutrophils

what does histamine do

increase blood flow (cause inflammation)

what do bradykinin do

causes blood vessel dilation and plays role in pain perception

what do prostaglandins do

regulate blood flow and produce blood clots; produced at site of injury

what do macrophages do

scavenge for worn out cells or debris, then secrete proteases

what are proteases

enzymes that destroy proteins

what does inflammation do

restore tissue that has been damaged; caused by dilated blood vessels which increases blood flow to the tissues

what is the specific immune response

response that is mediated by all of the lymphocytes

what are killer t-cells

cells that detect dna fragments that phagocytes leave behind; reprograms invader to undergo apoptosis

what is cell-mediated immunity

when an army of cytotoxic t-cells attack the invader based on detected fragments

what is apoptosis

programmed cell death (genes release proteases that chew up proteins)

how are helper t-cells part of the specific immune response

they activate b-cells which secretes antibodies that will circulate blood for specific antigen and attach (that’s the signal for destroying)

when do memory lymphocytes occur

after initial exposure or during subsequent exposure

what are memory lymphocytes

b-cells that stay in the system to be used for rapid immune response in the future

what are the two ways of creating immunity

exposing yourself to pathogens and vaccinations

what is the downside of exposing yourself to a pathogen

you’re gonna get sick

what are the two sides to a vaccine

have a history of eliminating diseases but lack of shots can bring them back

how does a vaccine work

weakened form of bacteria/virus will stimulate bodies ability to produce antibodies

immune deficiency can….

happen naturally or be a response to the effects of drugs or disease

who does not have a fully functioning immune system

infants

how do infants get antibodies

through bloodstream and breast milk

are there rare cases where people never form a fully functioning immune system

yes

what is aids

immune disorder caused by hiv

what are allergies

immune disorder caused by an abnormal response to foreign substances

what can you treat allergies with to lessen the response

histamine and bradykinin, or small doses of allergen

what is an autoimmune disease

a disease where your immune system attacks your body; things that should be in your body are recognized as antigens

examples of autoimmune diseases

rheumatoid arthritis, lupus, multiple sclerosis

what is psychoneuroimmunology

the study of the interactions of the immune, endocrine, and nervous system

what made people believe in psychoneuroimmunology

a 1975 study where they classically conditioned an immune response in rats

what did the classical conditioning of rats look like

they paired saccharin with a drug that caused immune suppression, so eventually it will produce a compromised immune system on its own

what is the thing that links psychoneuroimmunology

proinflammatory cytokines (released from helper t-cells), associated with sickness, depression, and social withdrawal

what is the study about proinflammatory releases

people were shown pictures of disease or threatening objects, and seeing them caused a release of the cytokines

what did cohen belief about social lives and colds

those that live happy social lives and have adequate social support are less likely to develop a cold

what is the goal of psychoneuroimmunology research

aims to develop an understanding of the role of behavior in changes in the immune system and the development of disease

what are the three questions they research (p.n.i)

what are the psychological factors, how do those factors effect changes in immune system, and is there a relationship between development of disease or changes in health status

if you get a wound during exam week…

it will take 40% longer to heal than if you got it on vacation; long-term stress proves to be compromising

relationship between caregivers of dementia and illness

they show poor immune systems and report more days of feeling ill

cortisol reduces inflammation but overtime…

it will suppress neutrophils and macrophages

high cortisol (for covid) equals

lower survival rate

what is the diathesis stress model

suggests that some individuals are vulnerable to stress related disease because of genetic weakness or biochemical imbalance that inherently predisposes them

what are the (2) necessary factors of diathesis stress model

the person must have a relatively permanent predisposition to the disease and they must experience some kind of stress

examples of a “relatively permanent predisposition” to a disease

biochemical differences, abuse or maltreatment during childhood

what is senescence

the process of aging that involves a gradual decline in organisms functioning (it retires)

what are telomeres

caps on the edge of a chromosome to hold lost nucleotides from cell division (25 - 250)

what are the three nucleotides the telomeres are made up of

thymine, adenine, and guanine (3000 - 15000)

what happens when telomeres get too short

cell will go into senescence where it will become dormant, or have apoptosis

length of telomere is a measure of…

cellular aging, independent from chronological age

study with telomeres

looked at length between stressed mothers; high stress mothers’ cells aged ten years faster than low stress mothers

what is generated when cortisol is released and what does it do

reactive oxygen species, which are destructive to telomeres and enhance cellular aging

effects of long-term stress on physical health

headaches and infectious disease, cardiovascular disease and hypertension, reactivity and ulcers, diabetes and asthma, rheumatoid arthritis, birth outcomes, and psychological disorders

what are headaches mostly associated with

daily hassles

what are the two types of headaches

tension headache (muscle tension) or vascular headache (where blood vessels dilate and create pressure)

example of vascular headache

headache after not drinking caffeine

according to cohen, the duration (of stress) is…

more important than the severity of stress on your health

three things stress will do

affect progression of disease, be a predictor for developing illness, and decrease effects of shots

how do stress and cardiovascular relate

the inflammation from releasing proinflammatories can contribute to blockage of arteries, and cortisol can develop arterial plaque

relationship between reactivity and susceptibility

reactivity influences how susceptible you are

african americans and reactivty

african americans who have been exposed to many stressors in childhood developed high reactivty by age six

how is ulcers caused

not directly by stress; bacteria breaks down stomach lining, eventually exposing tissues to stomach acids that causes bleeding

stress can have an impact on diabetes for…

type ones because of childhood trauma, or type two if a person isn’t taking care of themselves

how does stress increase asthma

inflammation of airways

stress and rheumatoid arthritis

stress causes joint inflammation

study with birth outcomes

animals had a decrease in birthweight and developmental delays while humans had decreased birthweight and higher pre-term births