Forensics🥷

What is the top down approach to profiling?

• Used in the USA by the FBI.

• Starts with a classification of the crime scene and then the profiler uses the information gained to make judgements about the likely offenders who would fit the circumstances.

• Relies heavily on the prior knowledge and the intuition of the profiler.

• It is called the top down approach because profilers start with broad general categories and then work downwards to a specific individual.

What is the crime scene classification stage of top down profiling?

Hazelwood and Douglas (1980) made a distinction between organised and disorganised types of offender.

Organised offender = Plans offences, body is usually transported for the scene, weapon is usually hidden, average to high intelligence.

Disorganised offender = Offender is messy and makes no effort to conceal incriminating evidence, victim is likely to be random, unskillled or unemployed.

Evaluate the top down approach for profiling (strengths)

➕Research shows that it is useful. Police who have used the FBI methods (top down approach) have found it useful. Copson (1995) conducted a questionnaire on 184 US police officers; 82% said that the technique was useful and 90% said that they would use it again. This shows that a significant amount of police offices find this profiling approach works well however what about the remaining 18/10% - the results are not 100%. Additionally, this study is ethnocentric as it only looks at us police, police forces in other countries may not appeal to this approach.

➕MAD bomber of New York in the 1940s and 50s - George Metesky. New York police and media described the bomber as: male, foreign, poor, mentally unstable. These assumptions were based on existing stereotypes, not direct evidence. Psychiatrist James Brussel used a top down approach from this evidence he classified the offender as organised. Predictions were highly accurate when Metesky was caught. Demonstrates practical success of the top-down profiling in a real case.

Evaluate the top-down approach for profiling (weaknesses)

➖Boston strangler. Top-down profiling relies on typical patterns. Profilers categorised the crimes as organised sexual serial murders. However, later evidence suggested more than one offender may have been involved. This shows top down profiling can oversimplify complex crime patterns.

➖The top down approach is based on extreme cases which are not representative of the general population.

➖The top down approach is not scientific as it is solely based on the opinions and intuition of profilers. This is a problem especially if profiling is wrong. Wrong profiling could result in wrongful convictions and a criminal on the loose.

Evaluate the reliability of an interview with a criminal

➕First hand information, could learn more.

➖Criminals may lie which reduces validity, interviewer bias, moral compass, ways crimes are done and solved has changed

What is the bottom up approach for profiling?

• Commonly used in the UK.

• A data driven approach where statistical techniques are used to produce predictions about the likely characteristics of the offender.

• Profiling is based on scientific theory and research.

• Profiles are made using actual data rather than the judgement of a profiler.

What are the two main types of bottom-up profiling?

1. Investigative psychology

2. Geographical profiling

What is the investigative psychology (type of bottom up profiling)

Canter proposed that profiling can and should be based on psychological theory and research.

Interpersonal coherence: people are consistent in their behaviour and therefore there will be links with with elements of the crime and how people behave in everyday life. At the same time, people’s behaviour changes over time and therefore looking at the differences in crimes over a four-year period might offer further clues.

Finger awareness: Certain behaviours may reveal an awareness of particular police techniques and past experience, for example Davis et al (1997) found that rapists who conceal fingerprints often had a previous conviction for burglary.

What is smallest space analysis? (Investigative psychology)

Data about many crime scenes and offender characteristics are correlated so that the most common connections can be identified. For example, Salfati and Canter (1999) analysed the co-occurrence of 48 crime scene and offender characteristics taken from 82 UK murder cases where the victim was a stranger. They identified three underlying themes:

• instrumental opportunistic - ‘instrumental’ refers to using murder to obtain something or accomplish a goal. ‘Opportunistic’ means that the offender took the easiest chance.

• Instrumental cognitive - a concern about being detected and therefore more planned.

• Expressive impulsive - uncontrolled, in the heat of strong emotions, feel provoked by victim.

What is geographical profiling? (Bottom up profiling)

People do not just reveal themselves through the crimes the commit but also through the locations they choose. Geographical profiling is concerned with where rather than who.

Canter and Larkin identified two types of offending:

• Marauder - offenders do not stray far from home.

• Commuter - commit crime far from home

What are Marauders?

Marauders move out from their base to offend, returning to that base then out again in a different direction, avoiding the earlier crime locations and seeking out opportunities as they find them around their base. This would give us a pattern where crimes occur around the offenders base.

What is the circle theory? (Geographical profiling)

• Criminals revel themselves by the locations they choose.

• Offenders have a spatial mind-set and they commit crimes in an imagined ‘circle’ .

Evaluate the bottom-up approach

➕ One strength of the bottom up approach is that is has real-world application. Peter Sutcliffe - Yorkshire ripper. supports the bottom-up approach because investigators were able to use behavioural and geographical data from a series of linked crimes to identify patterns in location and offender behaviour. This reflect the bottom up method as the profile was built inductively from evidence rather than from assumptions about the offenders personality. The use of geographical profiling to narrow down areas of interest also demonstrates how bottom up profiling relies on real crime data to guide investigations, supporting the scientific and evidence based nature of the approach.

➖Rachel Nickell case does not support the bottom up approach because profiling led police to focus on an incorrect suspect, demonstrating that profilers can be inaccurate and may misdirect investigations. This suggests that bottom up profiling lacks reliability and may encourage tunnel vision, particularly when based on limited behavioural data from a single offence. Therefore, the case challenges the usefulness and scientific validity of offender profiling as an investigative tool.

What is the physiological/historical explanation of offending behaviour?

Lombroso (1876) claimed that criminality was innate and as a result some were prone to criminality. These people exhibited ‘atavistic’ (primitive) features, e.g strong jaw and heavy brow. Lombroso suggested that they were ‘genetic throwbacks’ who had biological characteristics from an earlier stage of human development. He claimed that criminals were distinguishable from the general population.

He also suggested that different types of criminals had different features. Murderers had bloodshot eyes and curly hair, whilst sex offenders had thick lips and protruding ears.

what was Lombroso’s study and findings?

He investigated the facial and cranial features of hundreds of Italian convicts both living and dead. After examining over 383 living criminals, he concluded that 21% had one atavistic trait and 43% had at least five.

Evaluate the physiological/historical approach (Lombroso)

➖Lombroso did not use any non-criminal control groups to establish whether the ‘atavistic’ features he identified were confined to the criminal population.

➖culture bias - study was only on Italian criminals - cannot generalise findings.

➖GENDER BIAS. Lombroso had androcentic ideas about women. He believed that women are naturally jealous, insensitive to pain, passive and low intelligence. But women have a maternal instinct which neutralised negative traits making them less likely to be criminals. Women who became criminals had masculine characteristics which are fine in a man but creates a monster in a women.

➖nature, does not consider nurture. Reductionist - correlation not cause.

➕standardised procedure more replicable. Had a hypothesis- scientific, evidence was based on empirical data objective and measurable.

What did Sheldon argue?

Criminal behaviour is linked to a persons physical from. Three types:

• Endomorph - Fat and soft physique. Relaxed and sociable.

• Ectomorph - Thin and fragile physique. Introverted and self conscious nature.

• Mesomorph - Muscular and hard physique. Aggressive, more likely to be criminal minded.

His theory predicts that there should be a relationship between how mesomorphic a person is and their degree of criminality.

What is the genetic explanation of offending behaviour?

Genetic explanations investigate the heritability and genetic correlations of offending behaviour. We can investigate the degree to which genes contribute to a trait or behaviour by calculating heritability estimates.

What is the MAOA gene?

• An enzyme that breaks down important neurotransmitters in the brain. (Serotonin and dopamine). Low serotonin has been linked to impulsive/repetitive behaviour.

• Low levels/activity of MAOA has been linked to high levels of aggression.

What is the CDH13 gene?

• Contributes to maintaining excitatory and inhibitory synapses.

• It has been suggested that disturbed neural connectivity is the main pathophysiological mechanism underlying behavioural problems in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) , a disorder whose core symptom is losing impulse control.

• Thus, it is strongly associated with violent criminality.

What is the ‘Extra Y’ hypothesis?

• Sex is determined by the pattern of a persons sex chromosomes: XX in a women, XY in a man.

• It is a Y chromosome that makes a person male.

• It might be that men who have XYY chromosomes might be more aggressive than other men and hence more likely to commit violent crimes.

AO3 for ‘extra y’ hypothesis

➕Hewitt (2009) established that XYY men are rare in the general population but more common in the offender population.

➖Tesosterone levels amongst XYY men are no different from XY men, and they are no more aggressive than the general population.

➖Price (1966) suggested that individuals with XYY are above-average height and below average intelligence. It might be the latter characteristic (low intelligence) that accounts for their over-representation in prison populations.

What are the ways of studying genetic factors? Include examples

• Raine reviewed research on the criminal behaviour of twins and found a 52% concordance rate for MZ twins and a 21% concordance rate for DZ twins.

• Adoption studies attempt to rule out the gene factor by looking at children who have been adopted and have therefore been raised by adopted parents where there is no genetic similarity. Crowe studied this where he compared a group of adopted children whose biological mother had a criminal record, to a control group whose biological mother did not have a criminal record. It was found that if a biological mother had a criminal record 50% of the adopted children also had one by the time they were 18. In the control group only 5% had one.

What was Brunner’s study? (Support of MAOA gene rsearch)

Brunner et al. (1993) conducted an analysis of a large family in the Netherlands, a number of which had been responsible for various counts of anti-social and criminal behaviour including attempted rape and arson. The researchers found that the males had a genetic condition which became later known as “Brunner syndrome”The condition results in lower intelligence levels and causes a deficiency in MAOA, an enzyme responsible for the metabolism of neurotransmitters such as serotonin (which has links to aggression). The conclusion here is that individuals can inherit genetic conditions which make them prone to offending behaviour. Low iq levels could be due to environment, education or socio economic background, not purely genes.

What did Tiihonen et al (2015) find? (Research support for CDH13 gene an MAOA)

Finnish study on 900 offenders and found evidence of low MAOA activity and also low level activity for the CDH13 gene. They estimated that 5-10% of all violent crime in Finland is due to abnormalities in one of these two genes.

Eval: large sample, however only on Finnish offenders, limits generalisability.

PEEL paragraph for biological explanations

Many biological explanations can be seen as reductionist. This means they explain criminal behaviour by reducing it down to one factor. Taking a reductionist approach means that other important factors may be ignored, for example; situational factors such as peer pressure may also be an important influence on criminal behaviour. However, taking a reductionist approach has some benefits, it is a scientific approach and allows study of that one factor in depth.

What is the neural explanation for offending behaviour (neurotransmitters and brain structure)

• Neurotransmitter levels may be different in criminals when compared to non-criminals. Criminals may have lower levels of serotonin due to this neurotransmitter being linked to mood and impulsiveness. Criminals are more likely to have higher levels of dopamine, linked to reward feeling and desire to repeat certain behaviours. - evident where an individual feels a rewarding feeling from drugs which leads to an addiction, where in some cases they can no longer afford to fund the addiction further and therefore commit crime in order to do so e.g theft.

• Shortened version of the MAOA gene may alter levels of neurotransmitters - dopamine and serotonin.

• Reduced activity in the pre-frontal cortex which controls emotional behaviour (Raine).

Evaluate the neural explanation for offending behaviour (PEEL paragraph for neurotransmitter Dopamine)

One biological explanation for offending behaviour is that is associated with increased dopamine activity in the brain. Supporting this, Buckholtz et al found that individuals who scored highly on antisocial personality traits showed greater dopamine release in response to rewards. Using brain scans, they observed heightened activity in the brains reward system when participants anticipated rewards.

This suggests that people with higher dopamine responsiveness experience stronger feelings of pleasure and excitement from rewarding behaviour. As offending behaviour can be thrilling or rewarding, increased dopamine release may reinforce criminal actions, making individuals more likely to repeat them. Therefore, the study supports the idea that dopamine plays a role in offending behaviour by increasing reward sensitivity.

Evaluate the neural explanation for offending behaviour (PEEL paragraph for neurotransmitter Serotonin)

Neural explanations suggests that low serotonin levels are linked to offending behaviour, particularly impulsive and violent crimes. Supporting this, Mann et al found that individuals with a history of violent and impulsive behaviour had lower levels of serotonin. This provides a biochemical explanation for offending behaviour based on neurotransmitter imbalance. A limitation of this explanation is that it may be biologically reductionist, as it oversimplifies offending behaviour by ignoring social and environmental factors such as upbringing, peer influence, and poverty. Offending behaviour is complexed and unlikely to be caused by neurotransmitter levels alone. - diathesis stress model.

Evaluate the neural explanation for offending behaviour (PEEL paragraph for brain structure and function)

One neural explanation of offending behaviour is that criminals show abnormalities in brain areas linked to impulse control and emotional regulation, particularly in the prefrontal cortex. Supporting this, Adrian Raine conducted a brain-imaging study comparing 41murderers pleading NGRI with 41 non-offending controls. Using PET scans, they found reduced activities in the prefrontal cortex and abnormalities in the amygdala, hippocampus and corpus callosum in the offender group. These regions are associated with emotional processing, aggression and behavioural inhibition. Reduced prefrontal cortex activity may lead to poor impulse control and difficulty regulating aggressive urges, increasing the likelihood of offending behaviour. This supports the neural explanation by demonstrating a biological difference between offenders and non-offenders.

A strength of Raine et al’s study is its use of objective, scientific methods (PET scans) which increases reliability and reduces researcher bias. However, a limitation is that the study is quasi-experimental, meaning causation cannot be established. It is unclear whether brain abnormalities cause offending behaviour or result from factors such as substance abuse or head injury associated with a criminal lifestyle.

What is Eysenck’s theory?

• An individuals adult personality is a mix of biological tendencies combined with learning experiences.

• This mix can be used to explain why some people commit crimes.

• The personality test devised by Eysenck to assess an individuals personality is called the Eysencks personality questionnaire (EPQ).

• Suggested personality types are innate and based on the nervous system we inherit.

What three personality types did Eysenck identify?

Extraversion - Extraverts are characterised as outgoing risk-takers who like to express their thoughts and emotions.

Neuroticism - The tendency to experience negative emotional states (such as anger, anxiety and depression) rather than positive emotional states.

Psychoticism - Psychotics are egocentric, aggressive, impulsive, impersonal, lacking in empathy and generally not concerned about the welfare of other people.

Eysencks theory proposed that criminals would score at the higher end of each scales.

How do the personality types link to activity within the nervous system?

Extraverts - Have a under-arousal (underactive) nervous system which means they seek excitement and stimulation and engage in risk-taking.

Neurotic Individuals have a high level of reactivity in the sympathetic nervous system - they respond quickly to situations of threat (fight or flight). This means they tend to be nervous, jumpy and over anxious so their behaviour is difficult to predict.

Psychoticism individuals are suggested to have higher levels of testosterone - they are cold, unemotional and prone to aggression.

How can we explain criminal behaviour in terms of activity within the nervous system?

Extraverts have an underactive nervous system so they seek more arousal and thus engage in dangerous activities.

Neuroticism is characterised by having a high level of reactivity in the sympathetic nervous system (fight or flight) and are more likely to over-react to situations of threat which would explain some criminal activity.

Psychoticism can be easily linked to criminality because individuals are aggressive and lacking in empathy.

Eysenck claimed that people who were high in extraversion and neuroticism were less easily conditioned and therefore they do not learn to avoid anti-social behaviour.

Evaluation of Eysenck’s theory (strengths PEEL paragraph)

One strength of Eysenck’s theory is that there is supporting evidence for personality theory. For example, Zuckerman found a higher correlation for identical twins on neuroticism and extraversion compared with non-identical twins. There was also similar data for Psychoticism. This suggests that genes play a part in the development of all three traits as the correlation for MZ twins is higher than that for DZ. This supports the idea that personality types have a biological basis as suggested by Eysenck. This is a strength because it could allow us to predict personality from a young age which would mean we could anticipate future criminal behaviour and potentially intervene.

Another strength of Eysenck’s theory is that it can be applied to real-life. For example, the three personality traits, extraversion, neuroticism and psychoticism are good predictors of delinquency. Therefore, it may provide some useful ideas of how to prevent future criminal behaviour, for example, by modifying the environment of children who may have the potential to become offenders. In addition, another application could be to pay greater attention to conditioning experiences to ensure that people with high E and N do learn from their experiences.This is a strength because it suggests that we can predict and prevent criminal behaviour which would benefit society as a whole.

Evaluation of Eysenck’s theory (weaknesses PEEL paragraph)

One weakness of personality theory is that research methodology relies on self-report. For example, to measure personality the EPQ asks participants to report whether they ‘strongly agree’ or ‘strongly disagree’ with different items. However, some people my lie and choose a more socially desirable answer. Therefore their answers would not be truthful or truly represent reality. This is a weakness because it would lower the validity of the results.

One weakness of the theory is that it is socially sensitive. For example, people may be identified as having a criminal personality and then be treated differently. This could lead to a ‘blame culture’ where people are discriminated against. Therefore, research involving the EPQ and criminal behaviour needs to be carried out sensitively.

Eysenck’s theory of criminal personality is very deterministic. For example, it suggests that criminal behaviour is caused by personality factors that have an underlying biological basis. This is deterministic because it suggests that there is no room for free will and that people who commit crimes have no control over their behaviour. This raises question in terms of responsibility and punishment. If criminals have no control over their actions then how can we hold them responsible for their behaviour and punish them?

Personality may not be consistent. A number of psychologists take a situational perspective. They suggest that people may be consistent in similar situations but not across situations. This would mean that the notion of a criminal personality is flawed as people don’t simply have ‘one’ personality

What is the learning approach to offending behaviour?

• Focuses entirely on the influence of learning and, in particular, how the people you associate with influence the behaviours you acquire.

• A social approach that suggests that criminal behaviours might be passed on as a result of observation and reinforcement.

• Relates to the principles of both classical and operant conditioning.

How can we relate operant conditioning to offending behaviour?

Operant conditioning focuses on the consequences of the individuals actions, so if an individual is punished their deviant behaviour will decline.

However, if the individual receives positive reinforcement, possibly in the form of praise from peers, the offending behaviour is more likely to be repeated.

What is the differential association theory? (Sutherland)

The differential association theory proposed by Sutherland explains that people learn to become offenders from their environment. Criminal offending behaviour is learned through exposure to criminal norms.

• We take on the attitudes and values of those key people around us (usually parents and peers). They are also learned from the wider neighbourhood. Children will learn particular types of crimes are acceptable within their community and also desirable.

• Through interactions with others, individuals may also learn the methods and motives for criminal behaviour. Suggests that the frequency, length and personal meaning of such social associations will determine the degree of influence.

• Likely to involve both direct and indirect (vicarious) reinforcement.

Who provided supporting research for Sutherland’s differential association theory?

Rebellon: Found that if delinquent behaviour is rewarded then others will raise their own delinquent behaviour levels.

Evaluation of the differential association theory

➕The differential theory is supported by evidence. Osborne and West found that where there is a father with a criminal conviction, 40% if the sons had committed a crime by the age of 18 compared to 13% of sons of non-criminal fathers. This evidence suggests that criminality appears to run in families and that therefore suggests that criminal behaviours and attitudes are the result of social learning. On the other hand, it could also be argued that the evidence could be explained in terms of genetic inheritance as well.

➕The major strength of the differential association explanation of offending is that it changed people’s views about the origins of criminal behaviour. The theory marked an important shift from ‘blaming’ individual factors to pointing to social factors. The theory suggested that crime did not have it be explained in terms of personality (mad or bad). Such an approach has important real-world implications because learning environments can be changed. Sutherland also shifted the emphasis away from ‘bad’ individuals by highlighting white-collar crime which is often committed by those otherwise seen as ‘respectable’.

➖The absence of biological factors from this account is a drawback. The diathesis-stress model may offer a better account combining social factors with vulnerability factors. Predisposing factors may be innate genetic ones or early experiences such as maltreatment. Indeed, attachment research suggests that emotional problems in childhood make a child vulnerable to deviant peer influences later in life. As such, the social approach on its own may be an insufficient explanation.

What was the Cambridge study in Delinquent development?

Farmington et al (2006)

Aims: To document the start, duration and end of offending behaviour from childhood to adulthood in families. To investigate the influence of life events; the risk and protective factors predicting offending and antisocial behaviour; the intergenerational transmission of offending behaviour and antisocial behaviour and th e influence of family background.

A longitudinal study (48 years)

How does id ego and super ego relate to offending behaviour? (Psychodynamic approach)

• The superego is related to offending behaviour because it is concerned with right and wrong.

• Suggesting that the likelihood of developing or exhibiting offending behaviour is determined by the level of conflict between the id and the superego.

What are the three variations of the superego?

Weak/ underdeveloped superego - A child who does not identify with their same-sex parent or whose parent is absent develops a weak superego. The consequence is that the person has little control over anti-social behaviour and is likely to act in ways that gratify their instinctual id impulses.

Harsh/overdeveloped superego - The superego is very strong and punishing resulting in the individual feeling large amount of guilt, however it does not reduce the chances of offending, it increases them as committing crime acts as a release from the overwhelming guilt. The punishment makes the individual feel better.

Deviant - Normal identification with the same-sex parent means that the child takes on the same moral attitudes as that parent. In the case of children with a criminal parent, the child would then adopt the same deviant attitudes.

How does Freud’s psycho-sexual stages link to the development of superego?

• Failure to develop ego and superego in the phalic stage will mean that their concept of morality has not fully formed, which will have important implications for behaviours later in life.

• Psychodynamic theorists argue that if a father figure is weak or absent when a boy experiences the Oedipus complex, anxieties will not be resolved and the superego will be weak.

• In addition, Freud argues that because girls experience the Electra complex and ‘penis envy’ they are not able to develop a conscious in the same way as boys, so their superego is weaker and as a result females are more inferior to males. This would result in more female criminals

What did Bowlby argue?

• He argues that a warm, continuous relationship with a mother-figure was crucial to future relationships, well-being and development.

• A loss of attachment in infancy (maternal deprivation) could lead to affection less psychopathy (lack of empathy and guilt) and increased likelihood of delinquency.

• Supporting study = Bowlby’s study of 44 thieves. 44 thieves compared with 44 control patients. Bowlby found that 39% of the thieves had experienced early separations from their mothers, and 12 out of 14 of those that were classified as affection-less, had experienced frequent separations.

Evaluation of the Psychodynamic approach for offending behaviour (strengths)

➕ Real-life application: Freud’s psychodynamic theory has helped psychologists investigate how early childhood experiences and parent-child relationships shape subsequent adult offending behaviour. This is useful because it highlights how disrupted attachments, harsh parenting, or an underdeveloped superego may lead to a lack of guilt and increased likelihood of criminal behaviour. As a result, the approach has informed therapeutic interventions such as psychoanalysis and counselling, which aim to uncover and resolve unconscious conflicts from childhood. This can help offenders understand the root causes of their behaviour and potentially reduce reoffending. Therefore, the psychodynamic approach has practical value in both understanding and treating criminal behaviour, strengthening its usefulness as an explanation.

➕Supporing research: A strength of the psychodynamic approach is that there is supporting research evidence.For example, Megargee studied cases of violent behaviour in individuals who were typically passive and well-controlled. He found that these individuals often displayed sudden, extreme outbursts of violence, which he explained as the result of an overly strong superego suppressing aggressive impulses for long periods. Eventually, this repression builds up and is released in a disproportionate way. This supports Sigmund Freud’s idea that unconscious conflicts and imbalances within the personality (e.g. between the id and superego) can lead to criminal behaviour. It strengthens the validity of the psychodynamic explanation because it shows how internal psychological processes can directly influence offending. Therefore, research like Megargee’s provides empirical support for the psychodynamic approach to offending behaviour. However, this theory cannot be applied to all crime as it does not explain crimes that require careful planing and rational thinking, this weakens the overall explanation.

Evaluation of the Psychodynamic approach for offending behaviour (weaknesses)

➖A weakness of the psychodynamic approach to offending behaviour is that it is deterministic. It suggests that once harmful experiences occur in early childhood—such as poor parenting or an imbalanced superego—the individual is essentially shaped in a fixed way. This implies that later offending behaviour is the inevitable result of unconscious conflicts formed early in life, leaving little room for personal choice or change. However, in reality many people who experience difficult childhoods do not go on to commit crimes, suggesting that individuals can exercise free will and be influenced by other factors such as social support or later experiences. This makes the theory overly simplistic and reductionist, as it ignores cognitive processes and situational influences that may also affect behaviour. Therefore, the psychodynamic approach lacks completeness because it underestimates the role of free will in determining offending behaviour.

➖ Gender bias: The psychodynamic approach argues that females are morally inferior to males, so should in theory, commit more crime. However, Hoffman (1977) found that females have a stronger sense of morality compared to males.

What does the cognitive explanation offending behaviour focus on?

1. Cognitive distortions: Egocentric bias/cognitive distortion, hostile attribution bias, excessive blaming and minimisation.

2. Levels of moral reasoning.

What are cognitive distortions and egocentric bias?

The term cognitive distortions refers to the thought processes that convince individuals that something is not true or actually happening.

• Gibbs has investigated the role cognitive distortions play in the relationship between moral reasoning and offending behaviour. Cognitive distortions occur when an individual forms distorted attitudes and thoughts that legitimise the offending behaviour.

• According to this explanation, the primary distortion is known as egocentric bias, in which the individual puts their own interests and needs above those of other people.

What is hostile attribution bias?

Interpreting ambiguous events as having a hostile intent. Leading to aggressive behaviour e.g assault. Justification for committing violent crime.

What is excessive blaming?

Blaming others or external factors for their behaviour. Does not accept responsibility for hurting or harming others. Justifying their actions.

What is minimalisation?

Minimising the consequences of their actions. Reduces feelings of regret or guilt. Increases likelihood of engaging in offending behaviour.

Evaluation of cognitive distortions

➕Supporting evidence: Studies of violent offenders have provided research support for hostile attribution bias. Schonenberg and Aiste showed emotionally ambiguous faces to 55 violent offenders in prison and compared their responses to matched control ‘normal’ participants. The face showed angry, happy or fearful emotions, in varying levels of intensity of the target emotion. The offenders were more likely to interpret any picture/stimuli that had some expression of anger as an expression of aggression. This suggests that the misinterpretation of non-verbal cues (e.g facial expressions) may at least partly explain aggressive-impulsive behaviour in susceptible individuals. However, there may be other factors that influence aggression e.g testosterone, may not solely be because of hostile attribution bias.

➕One strength of the cognitive distortions explanation is that there is room for intervention. Cognitive distortions explanation has real world application as understanding it can be used in treatments. Heller et al worked with a group of young men who were mainly from disadvantaged groups in Chicago. They used cognitive behaviour techniques to reduce judgment and decision making errors (cognitive distortions). Those participants who attended 13 one hour sessions has a 44% reduction in arrests compared to a control group. This suggests that CBT can be effective in helping to rehabilitate people. This is likely to reduce reoffending and reduce number of offenders, which will in-turn reduce the pressure on prisons ; this has positive economical implications as there will be less financial strain on prisons.

➖There are ethical considerations when labelling someone as having cognitive distortions as it may contribute to further offending (socially sensitive). This could lead to a ‘blame culture’ This because such labels may stigmatise individuals, leading to others to view them as inherently dangerous or flawed. This could affect how they are treated in the cjs and wider society. It may also reduce personal responsibility, as behaviour is attributed to faulty thinking rather than conscious choice. Therefore, although cognitive distortions provide an explanation for offending, their application raises ethical concerns, reducing the overall usefulness of the explanation.

What is levels of moral reasoning?

Moral reasoning refers to how individuals reason about and justify their behaviour in relation to moral issues.

• Psychological approach to moral reasoning = cognitive development theory, initially proposed by Piaget, which states that children develop moral reasoning through a series of stages, this theory was subsequently developed by Kohlberg.

What are the different stages of moral reasoning?

Level One:

• Stage one = Obedience and Punishment: child learns that obeying rules is important because it is a way of avoiding punishment.

• Stage two = individualism and exchange/reward stage: if gains are likely than the crime is more likely to be committed.

Level Two:

• Stage three = Interpersonal relationship: good boy/girl: consideration for what other people think.

• Stage four = Maintaining social order: the rules learnt in stage one are placed with the context of society and moral reasoning is based on maintaining law.

Level Three:

• Stage five = social contact stage: could commit crime if they feel law should not be applied in a particular case.

• Stage six = universal/ethical principles: people have their own moral code. Individual is fully developed in moral understanding and moral reasoning is based upon internal ethical ethical principles and abstract reasoning.

What did Hollin et al find?

• Criminals are likely to be at the pre-conventional level.

• They believe that breaking the law is justified if the rewards outweigh the costs or if punishment can be avoided.

• Most people reach this stage around the age of 10 (age of criminal responsibility) - in Kohlberg’s longitudinal study, just under 20% of the children at age 10 were at stage 1 and about 60% of children were at stage 2.

How were Kohlberg’s stages developed?

Using research involving presenting groups of male children and young adults with a series of moral dilemmas. The participants were then interviewed and asked a set of predetermined questions about what they would have done and why. These questions aimed to investigate the moral reasoning behind their decision in each scenario. example = Heinz steals drugs for sick wife.

Outline one limitation of using interviews with children when looking at moral reasoning

Children may not be able to read it, literacy is a barrier. the scenario presented is an adult scenario that children may not be able to relate to.

PEEL paragraphs of two criticism of levels of moral reasoning

One of the main criticisms of Kohlberg’s theory of moral reasoning is that it is androcentric. For example, Kohlberg’s theory has been criticised for gender biased, as it was developed using a male-only sample, yet the stages of moral development were generalised to both men and women. The theory is androcentric, as it suggests that males develop superior moral reasoning based on rules and justice, while female morality—based on care and relationships is seen as less advanced. As a result, female offenders may be unfairly judged or misunderstood when their moral reasoning doesn’t fit Kohlberg’s male-oriented model.

Another criticism of this explanation of offending behaviour is that the theory is biased towards Western cultures as the dilemmas and questions may not have the same relevance in non-Western countries. For example, Shweder et al (1987) found that Indian participants reasoned differently to Western participants and that Indian participants tended to have a moral code based on social duties rather than the American moral code based on individual rights. Like with gender bias, the danger here is that non-Western individuals may be classed as having a more immature level of reasoning than Western individuals and that this will lead to the assumption that they are more likely to take part in offending behaviour. This is an example of imposed etic.

Evaluation of levels of moral reasoning (strengths)

According to Kohlberg, children follow the same sequence of moral stages and there are many studies that support this theory. For example, a longitudinal study carried out over 20 years by Colby et al looked at 58 American males and found evidence that their moral understanding and reasoning developed through the levels and stages proposed in Kohlberg’s theory. Additionally, a cross-cultural study of moral reasoning by Snarey found evidence for the first four stages of moral understanding in many cultures.

What is recidivism?

This is where a person re-offends after receiving some form of punishment for previous offences.

This has economic implications.

What is a custodial sentence? and what are the aims?

One where the court requires an offender to be held in a prison or some other closed community like a psychiatric hospital.

• Retribution - Punishment

• Deterrence - Threat of punishment acts as prevention (individual and general)

• Rehabilitation - Punishment changes the behaviour/programmes.

• Incapacitation - Public safety.

What are the effects of custodial sentencing?

• De-individuation: a loss of individual identity. Often linked to increased aggression and treating people in inhuman ways.

• Depression, self-harm and suicide.

• Overcrowding and lack of privacy.

• Effects on the family: children with a mother or father in prison are deeply affected financially and psychologically, and the reverse is true.

Evaluate the use of custodial sentencing (strengths)

➕Protects the public. Offenders are physically removed from society and therefore unable to commit further crimes during their sentence. This is especially important for dangerous or violent offenders, as imprisonment reduces immediate risk to the public and maintains social order. Therefore, custodial sentencing serves an important role in insuring public safety.

➕can act as a deterrent. The fear of imprisonment may discourage individuals from committing crimes. Knowing that offending could lead to loss of freedom, separation from family, and harsh prison conditions may prevent people from engaging in criminal behaviour. This is particularly relevant for general deterrence, where others in society are discouraged from offending. Therefore, custodial sentencing can be seen as effective in reducing crime rates.

Evaluate the use of custodial sentencing (Weaknesses)

➖A major limitation is that custodial sentencing is often ineffective at reducing reoffending. (E.g 50% of the prison population go on to reoffend. )This suggests that prison does not address the underlying cause of criminals behaviour, such as cognitive distortions or social influences. Instead, prisons may expose offenders to more experienced criminals, reinforcing criminal attitudes. (Differential association theory). Therefore, custodial sentencing may not be effective as a long-term solution to crime.

➖Custodial sentencing can have negative psychological effects on inmates. Phenomena such as institutionalisation and prisonisation have been identified by Zimbardo. Institutionalisation refers to inmates becoming dependent on the structured prison environment, making it difficult to function independently upon release. Prisonisation involves adopting the norms and values of prison life, which may increase criminal behaviour. These effects can hinder rehabilitation and reintegration into society. Therefore, custodial sentencing may actually increase the likelihood of reoffending.

What is behaviour modification?

• The use of empirically demonstrated behaviour change techniques to increase or decrease the frequency of behaviours using the principles of learning theory.

• Behaviour modification techniques are based on the behaviourist principles of operant conditioning.

• Operant conditioning is a type of learning where behaviour is controlled by consequences.

• Based on the idea that if criminal behaviour is learned in the same way as any other behaviour (through Skinner’s principles of reinforcement and punishment), these inappropriate behaviours can be ‘unlearned’ in the same way.

What are token economies?

The token economy system is a structured reward system where prisoners earn tokens for good behaviour. (E.g avoiding conflict, following rules). These tokens can be exchanged for tangible rewards e.g snacks, phone calls or more leisure time.

Primary reinforcers = something that you want e.g the rewards (snacks, phone calls, leisure time).

Secondary reinforcers (tokens) = Have no inherent value but become reinforcing through its association with a primary reinforcer.

• It incentivises good behaviour - offenders are more likely to follow rules when they know there’s something in it for them.

• It reinforces the link between actions and consequences - helping offenders understand that positive behaviour leads to positive outcomes.

What needs to be established in order for the token system to be set up?

1. Desired behaviour must be clearly defined.

2. The desired behaviour is broken down into small steps (increments)

3. A baseline measure is established (a way of objectively identifying whether the offender is displaying the required behaviour)

4. Variety of rewards.

5. Reasons for token allocation must be clear.

6. Worth of tokens must be clearly established.

7. Rate of earning tokens must be established.

How is positive and negative reinforcement and punishment demonstrated through the use of token economies?

Positive reinforcement = reward for good behaviour e.g phone calls, more recreational time

Negative reinforcement = if prisoners behave well, restrictions may be eased.

Punishment = prisoners could lose certain privileges or be put in isolation if their behaviour is bad.

Key study for token economies (Hobbs and Holt)

Hobbs and Holt (1976) investigated the effectiveness of token economies in a young offenders’ institution. They introduced a system where desirable behaviours (such as cooperation and good behaviour) were rewarded with tokens, which could later be exchanged for privileges.

They found that boys who were placed in a token economy group showed significantly more positive behaviourcompared to a control group who did not receive tokens. This suggests that behaviour can be modified through operant conditioning, as the tokens act as secondary reinforcers.

Conclusion: The study supports the effectiveness of token economies in institutional settings, showing they can successfully increase desirable behaviour and reduce antisocial behaviour.

Evaluate the use of token economies

➖There are ethical issues with using a token economy. For example, an offender who decides not to comply with the token economy scheme loses ‘privileges’ through withdrawal of tokens. This is ethically questionable as the conditions of behaviour modification are regarded as manipulative and dehumanising by some. Participation is often compulsory rather than optional. This questions the morality and fairness of using token economy systems.

➕One strength of behaviour modification is that it is easy to implement. For example, it does not need specialist professionals. It is also cost-effective and easy to follow once the programme is designed. This would be a benefit of using behaviour modification in prisons, particularly as funding in prisons is a key issue. However, it depends on the consistent approach from prison staff.

➖There is little rehabilitative value. For example, Blackburn argued that positive changes in prison may quickly be lost when the offender is released, therefore is only short-term, is ineffective in the long term. Token economies may work well in prisons but progress is unlikely to be maintained outside. So token economy systems are limited in value.

What is anger management?

• A therapeutic programme often used with convicted violent criminals.

• This approach assumes that violent behaviour (e.g assault, murder, manslaughter) is caused by anger and frustration. It is hoped that if individuals can learn to control this anger then their violent behaviour patterns will decrease.

• Anger management is based on cognitive behavioural techniques and a specific programme has been designed for use in penal institutions.

What is the ABCD model of anger?

The basis of the model is that a stimulus event (A) creates beliefs (B) that have consequences (C). To deal with them effectively we need to ‘dispute’ (D) with our beliefs and come up with alternative healthier (non-aggressive/offending) responses.

What is the aim of anger management? (2)

1. A short-term aid of reducing anger and aggression in prisons where it is a serious issue.

2. A longer-term aid of rehabilitation and reduction of recidivism.

What are the three stages of anger management? (Novaco)

• Cognitive preparation - They analyse their own patterns of anger and identify situations which provoke anger in them.

• Skill acquisition - Clients are taught various skills to help manage their anger, such as self-regulation, cognitive flexibility and relaxation. They are also taught better communication skills so they can resolve conflicts assertively without being angry.

• Application training - Clients apply the skills initially in controlled and non-threatening situations such as role plays of situations that previously made them angry. They receive extensive feedback from the therapist and other group members. Later clients can try out their skills in real world settings.

Evaluation of anger management (strengths)

➕Focuses on short term and long term. This can lead to reduced recidivism. This has positive implications on the economy - less financial strain on prisons as will not be as crowded.

➕Improves the prison environment.

Evaluation of anger management (weaknesses)

➖A key limitation is that not all crimes are driven by high levels of anger. For example, offences such as fraud or planned theft are often premeditated and motivated by financial gain rather than emotional arousal. This suggests that anger management may be more effective fro offenders whose crimes are linked to impulsive, reactive aggression, but less suitable for those whose behaviour is calculated or motivated by other factors. Therefore, while anger management can be valuable for reducing certain types of aggression, its effectiveness may be limited because it assumes that anger is the primary cause of criminal behaviour, which is not always the case.

➖The relationship between anger and aggression is not clear as not all people who experience anger behave aggressively. Therefore it may be more appropriate to address levels of aggression rather than levels of anger.

➖Need a trained professional. - expensive = economic impact, compared to token economies which is relatively inexpensive.

➖CBT in general is not for everyone so it will not work for all individuals. - commitment and motivation is needed to engage. Decreased effectiveness/usefulness if criminals are not willing to engage with the sessions.

Studies to support anger management/what are methodological issues with them?

• Difficult to compare the effectiveness of different programmes due to variation.

• Anger often measured using self-report. - may not be accurate, lowers validity.

• Gender bias. - male

• Idiographic, - difficult to generalise.