5.1-5.5 3.1-3.6 AP Psych

 general adaptation syndrome (GAS)

explains how the body responds to stress.

First, an alarm reaction when stress begins.

Next is resistance phase, when the body deals with the stress (fight, flight, or freeze).

Finally, exhaustion phase, when body runs out of energy. People are most likely to get sick during this last phase. 

tend-and-befriend theory

some people respond to stress by taking care of themselves or others and by seeking social support. This response is seen more often in women. 

Problem-focused coping

treating stress like a problem and actively trying to solve it. 

Emotion-focused coping

managing your feelings about stress instead of trying to solve the problem. This can include deep breathing, meditation, or medication to reduce stress. 

Posttraumatic growth

positive change can happen after going through trauma or stress. 

The American Psychiatric Association

who created the DSM?

World Health Organization

who created the ICD to classify disorders

Behavioral perspective

Mental disorders are caused by learned harmful behaviors and associations.

Psychodynamic perspective

Mental disorders come from unconscious thoughts and childhood experiences

Humanistic perspective

Mental disorders result from lack of support and not reaching one’s potential

Cognitive perspective

Mental disorders are caused by unhelpful thoughts, beliefs, and emotions.

Evolutionary perspective

Mental disorders involve behaviors or thoughts that reduce survival.

Sociocultural perspective

Mental disorders are influenced by unhealthy social or cultural environments.

Biological perspective

Mental disorders are caused by genetic or physical brain/body factors.

Biopsychosocial model

Psychological problems are caused by a mix of biological, psychological, and social factors.

Diathesis-stress model

Psychological disorders develop when a genetic risk combines with stressful life experiences.

ethical rules from the APA

no harm, being trustworthy, acting honestly, and respecting clients’ rights and dignity.

Psychodynamic therapy

 uses free association and dream analysis to explore the unconscious mind.

Cognitive therapy

focuses on changing unhelpful thoughts, often by addressing negative views about oneself, the world, and the future (the cognitive triad)

Applied behavior analysis

uses learning principles to treat disorders and disabilities.

This includes exposure therapy, aversion therapy, token economies, and biofeedback to help control body responses linked to stress.

Cognitive-behavioral therapy

combines cognitive and behavioral methods to treat mental disorders.

Humanistic (person-centered) therapy

uses active listening and unconditional positive regard to support the client.

Hypnosis

help reduce pain and anxiety. However, it is not reliable for recovering accurate memories or “age regression.”

Cross-Sectional Study

A research method that compares individuals of different ages at one point in time to understand age-related differences.

Longitudinal Study

A research method that follows and studies the same individuals over a long period of time to track development and changes.

Teratogen

A substance or factor that can cause harm to a developing fetus, leading to birth defects or developmental problems.

Fine motor skills

Small movements that require control of the muscles, particularly in the hands and fingers.

Example:
A child learning to write or pick up small objects like a pencil or button.

Gross motor skills

- Larger movements that involve the whole body, such as walking, jumping, or running.

Example:
A toddler learning to walk or ride a bicycle.

Rooting reflex

A newborn's automatic response to turn their head and open their mouth when their cheek is touched

Critical period (sensitive period)

A specific time during development when a person is particularly sensitive to certain types of stimuli or experiences that can influence their development.

Primary sex characteristics

The physical traits directly related to reproduction, such as the reproductive organs.

Example: A female's uterus and ovaries developing during puberty.

Secondary sex characteristics

 Physical traits that distinguish the sexes but are not directly related to reproduction, such as body hair and voice changes.

Schema

 A mental framework or organized pattern of thought that helps people understand and interpret information based on prior experiences.

Assimilation

 The process of incorporating new information into an existing schema without changing the schema.

Example:
A child sees a cat for the first time and calls it a dog because they have a schema for four-legged animals but haven't learned the difference yet

Accommodation

The process of changing an existing schema or creating a new one when new information doesn’t fit into the old schema.

Example: When the child learns that cats and dogs are different, they adjust their schema and create a new one for cats.

Scaffolding

A teaching method where a more knowledgeable person (like a teacher or parent) provides support to help a learner perform a task they cannot do alone, gradually reducing help as the learner gains competence.

Example: A parent helps a child tie their shoes by guiding their hands, but over time, the child learns to do it independently.

Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)

The range of tasks that a learner can perform with guidance but cannot yet perform independently. Learning is most effective within this zone.

Crystallized intelligence

The accumulated knowledge and verbal skills that tend to remain stable or increase with age.

Example:
A person’s vocabulary reflects crystallized intelligence, which doesn't decline much with age.

Fluid intelligence

The ability to reason quickly and abstractly, which typically declines with age.

Example: A young adult solving a novel puzzle quickly demonstrates fluid intelligence, whereas an older adult may take more time to solve it due to slower processing speed.

Dementia

A decline in cognitive functioning, including memory, thinking, and reasoning, often affecting older adults. Alzheimer's disease is a common form of dementia.

Piaget's theory of cognitive development

 outlines four stages that children go through as they develop their thinking abilities

Object permanence

The understanding that objects continue to exist even when they can’t be seen, heard, or touched

Preoperational

 2-7 years, Children start to use language and think symbolically, but their thinking is still egocentric (they have difficulty seeing things from others' perspectives)

Sensorimotor

birth-2, Infants learn about the world through their senses and actions. During this stage, baby develops Object permanence

Lack of conservation

The inability to understand that quantity remains the same despite changes in shape or appearance

Lack of reversibility

struggle to understand that if something is changed or transformed, it can be returned to its original state.

Theory of mind

Understand that other people have thoughts, feelings, and perspectives that may be different from their own.

Concrete operational

7-11 years, children begin to think logically about concrete events, grasp the concept of conservation, and understand cause and effect.

Formal operational

12 years and up,

ability to think abstractly, and hypothetically.

Not achieved by all people, according to Piaget

Phoneme

The smallest unit of sound in a language, does not necessarily have meaning.

Example: /ch/ or /b/ 

Morpheme

The smallest unit of meaning in a language, which can be a word or a part of a word (like a prefix or suffix).

Example:
In the word "cats," there are two morphemes: "cat" (the animal) and "s" (indicating plural)

Telegraphic speech

Early speech in children, typically around age 2, where they use short, simple, 2-3 word phrases that usually include only essential words, often like a telegram.

Example: A child might say "want cookie" instead of "I want a cookie."

Overgeneralization

When children apply language rules too broadly, often leading to mistakes.

Example: A child might say "goed" instead of "went" or "foots" instead of "feet," overapplying the regular rule of adding "-ed" for past tense.

Parallel play

This is when children play alongside each other but do not interact or share toys. They may be doing similar activities, but they aren't engaging directly with one another.

Pretend play

This is when children use their imagination to create stories or scenarios, often taking on different roles. They may engage in cooperative play, where they work together, sharing ideas and taking turns in their roles (e.g., playing "house" or "doctor").

egocentrism

where they focus on themselves and how they are perceived by others. This is shown in two ways:

Imaginary Audience

Adolescents believe that everyone is constantly watching and judging them, as if they are the center of attention.

For example, a teenager might feel overly self-conscious about how they look in public because they think everyone is noticing them.

Personal Fable

Adolescents believe their experiences are unique and that no one else can understand them. They may feel invincible or that they are destined for something special, leading to risky behaviors or unrealistic expectations about their future.

Authoritarian parenting

a strict, high-demand, low-responsiveness style defined by rigid rules, "my way or the highway" expectations, and little to no negotiation

Permissive parenting

a nurturing, indulgent style characterized by high warmth, low demands, and few rules

Authoritative parenting

high-warmth, high-structure style that balances nurturing with clear rules, fostering independence, self-regulation, and high self-esteem in children.

Temperament

innate, biologically based individual differences in emotional reactivity, mood, and behavioral style that appear early in life

social clock

Culture influences when adulthood starts and when major life events happen

Microsystem

Direct contact groups, like family and friends.

Mesosystem

Interactions between different groups in the microsystem (e.g., how family and school influence each other)

Exosystem

 Indirect factors, like a parent's work schedule, that impact the individual.

Macrosystem

 Larger cultural events and societal factors that affect individuals.

Chronosystem

The individual’s current stage of life and how it influences development over time.

Adverse childhood experiences (ACEs)

stressful or traumatic events that occur during childhood and can negatively impact a person's emotional, mental, and physical health later in life.

achievement

settling on who they (adolescents) are

diffusion

not thinking much about identity

foreclosure

(deciding without exploring)

moratorium

taking time to explore different identities

The stage theory of psychosocial development

suggests that people must resolve key conflicts at each stage of their life

Trust vs. Mistrust

Infants learn to trust or feel insecure about their world.

Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

Toddlers gain independence or feel doubtful about their abilities.

Initiative vs. Guilt

Young children take initiative or feel guilty about their actions.

Industry vs. Inferiority

Children learn to work and achieve or feel inferior to others

Identity vs. Role Confusion

Adolescents explore their identity or feel confused about who they are.

Intimacy vs. Isolation

Young adults form meaningful relationships or feel isolated.

Generativity vs. Stagnation

Middle-aged adults contribute to society or feel stagnant.

Integrity vs. Despair

Older adults reflect on their life with either satisfaction or regret.