Psychology 1100-Chapter 3 (Memory)

What is memory?

Ability to store and retrieve information over time

What are the three function of memory?

Encoding: transforming perceived/thought/felt info into memory

Storage: maintaining information over time

Retrieval: bringing stored info into conscious awareness.

What is semantic encoding?

Encoding info by relating it to existing knowledge/meaning

Better recall when info is meaningful

Brain area: lower/inner left frontal lobe

Examples: definitions, mnemonics

What is visual imagery encoding?

Encoding info as mental pictures

Brain area: occipital lobe

What is organizational encoding?

Encoding by categorizing relationships among items

Improves recall

Brain area: upper left frontal lobe

What is survival encoding?

Recall improves when imagining info in a survival scenario

Involves elaboration: linking new info to existing memories/knowledge

What is sensory storage and the different types?

Brief storage of sensory information (seconds or less).

Type	Information	Brain Area	Example
Iconic	Visual	Occipital lobe	Movie frames
Echoic	Auditory	Temporal lobe	Music
Haptic	Tactile	Parietal lobe	Handshake pressure

What is short-term memory and what helps keep info in it longer?

Holds non-sensory info for <1 minute

Capacity= 7 meaningful items

Chunking: grouping info into smaller meaningful units to improve capacity

Rehearsal: mentally repeating info to keep it in STM longer (15-20 seconds)

What is serial position effects?

Better recall for beginning and end of a list

Primary effects: first items

Recency effect: last items

What is working memory?

Temporary storage + manipulation of information

Component	Function
Visuospatial Sketchpad	Stores/manipulates visual info
Phonological Loop	Stores/manipulates verbal info

What is long-term memory?

Stores info for hours to years, w/ unlimited capacity

Consolidation: stabilization of memories through recall, reflection, talking, and sleep

Memories move:

STM—> hippocampus, then distributed to other regions of the brain for LTS

What is the role of the hippocampus in LTM?

Acts as a memory index

Crucial for forming/retrieving new memories

Less important as memories age

What is the process of retrieval?

Bringing stored info into awareness (helped by retrieval cues)

What is the encoding specificity principle?

Retrieval works best when cues recreate the original encoding conditions

External: physical cues from environment (sights, smells, sounds, settings)

Internal: recalling information from own mind (mood, thoughts, physicl state)

What is retrieval-induced forgetting?

recalling some info can make related unpracticed info harder to remember

Reconsolidation

Retrieved memories become fragile and can change before being stored again

What are forms of long-term memory?

Explicit: people consciously or intentionally retrieve past experiences (in the amygdala, prefrontal cortex, hippocampus)

Implicit: past experiences influence later behaviour and performance

What are parts of explicit memory?

Semantic memory: network of associated facts and concepts that make up general knowledge of world

Episodic memory: collection of past personal experiences that occurred at a specific time and place

What does episodic memory utilize for envisioning personal futures?

Divergent creative thinking: generating ideas by combining different types of info in new ways

What are parts of implicit memory?

Procedural memory: acquiring skills /”knowing how to do things through practice

Priming: faster/easier processing after recent exposure to stimulus is enhanced

What is non-associative learning?

Response to one stimulus changes after repeated exposure

Habituation: decreased response to repeated stimulus

Sensitization: increased responsiveness; lower response threshold

Memory Failures (“7 sins of memory”)

Transience: forgetting over time (ex childhood amnesia)

Absentmindedness: attention lapse causing memory failure;affects prospective memory

Blocking: temporary inability to retrieve info (“tip-of-the-tongue”)

Misattribution: remembering info but assigning wrong source (deja-vu)

Suggestibility: incorporating misleading external info into memories

Bias: current beliefs/feelings distort past memories

Persistence: intrusive unwanted memories (resulting from traumatic or disturbing events)

Consistency bias

Reconstructing the past to fit present beliefs

Can increase susceptibility to fake news

False memories (suggestibility)

Can form through: visual imagery. social pressure, suggestion

Flashbulb memories (persistence)

Vivid memories of learning about shocking/emotional events