Beginning of Cold War 1945-49

What key factor influenced Soviet foreign policy from the 1917 revolution onwards?

Being encircled by hostile, capitalist powers

What was 'Socialism in one country'

USSR should first become strong, then try to bring world revolution- Stalin's approach to foreign policy

What is Popular Front policy?

Encouraging cooperation between the communists and the West to stop fascism

What happens to Russia in 1941?

The Nazis invade through Operation Barbarossa, Russia is decimated and they lose 25 million people

What assumptions shaped Soviet foreign policy at the beginning of the Cold War?

-communism was the wave of the future, capitalism would pass

-fear of the technical power of the US

-fear that too much contact with the West would undermine Soviets

-wanted USSR to have appropriate reparations for the war

What key belief underpins all of US foreign policy?

The idea that the US way of life is superior to all others

What is US isolationism?

Isolationism refers to America's longstanding reluctance to become involved in European alliances and wars.

What is manifest destiny?

the 19th-century doctrine or belief that the expansion of the US throughout the American continents was both justified and inevitable due to America's superiority

How did FDR interact with Stalin and the USSR?

He was more willing to negotiate and collaborate with Stalin than other Western leaders, he was open-minded and dealt with Soviets on a case by case basis

How did FDR help re-structure post-war relations?

Helped set up the UN, IMF and the World Bank

How did FDR try and restrain the USSR?

In the Declaration on Liberated Europe he agreed that countries in Eastern Europe should be free to self-determinate

What were the US's aims for after WW2?

-to restructure international relations

-obtain access to new markets (partly by supporting countries to break free from colonialism)

-prevent fascism and future war

What is the orthodox viewpoint of the beginning of the Cold War?

That the Cold War began due to the USSR's aggressive, expansionist foreign policy

What is the revisionist viewpoint of the beginning of the Cold War?

Cites US's imperialism in Europe as the main reason for the start of the Cold War

What were FDR's four freedoms?

Freedom of speech, freedom of worship, freedom from want, and freedom from fear.

Were FDR's four freedoms in line with US foreign policy?

Not in line with isolationism but fitted with Wilsonian internationalism and moralism (links to manifest destiny, spreading US worldview everywhere)

What did Stalin want from a post-war settlement?

-weak germany

-sphere of influence and a buffer zone in Eastern Europe

-maintain the security of the USSR

What did Churchill want from a post-war settlement?

-free elections throughout Eastern Europe

-was okay with spheres of influence but only if the UK was also involved

-wanted to maintain the UK's empire

What did Roosevelt want from a post-war settlement?

-wanted to ensure that there would be no conflict in Europe

-removal of US troops from Europe

-a post war settlement, close economic ties with Europe through the IMF, UN and World Bank

What were some of the Soviet priorities set out in the Maisky memorandum?

-Soviet security

- a communist Europe

-reducing the power of the USA and UK

When was the Tehran conference?

November 1943

What was generally discussed at the Tehran conference?

-opening a second front

-the USSR entering the war with Japan

-establishing the UN

Why did the USSR want the Allies to open a second front?

It would split the German forces and so alleviate the pressure on the USSR who were suffering massively in the fighting

What did the Allies say after the Tehran conference?

"we came here with hope and determination. We leave here, friends in fact, in spirit and in purpose"

Who was present at the Moscow Conference in 1944 and why?

Stalin and Churchill. Roosevelt was not present as they thought that he would disapprove of the spheres of influence in Europe and view it as imperialism, which the USA was committed to stop

What was Churchill's naughty document?

A document written on the back of a sheet of paper dividing up Europe by percentages e.g. Romania 90% Soviet 10% western

Which country did Churchill focus on in the naughty document and why?

Greece, the UK needed Greece to keep access to the Suez Canal and ensure trade with the rest of their empire

What was the Litvinov Commission (November 1944) and what did it state?

Litvinov urged Stalin to work with the UK to divide up Europe and that post-war peace could only be achieved if an understanding with the UK was made

What is a quote from the Litvinov Commission?

"an amicable delimitation of security spheres in Europe"

What position was the USA in at the end of the war?

They were very economically powerful so had a lot of say in Europe but were withdrawing their troops to allow for free governments

What position was the UK in at the end of the war?

They were very weak, having to rely on the USA economically but still had imperial ambitions even though they were losing their hold on the empire

What position was the USSR in at the end of the war?

They had lost 20 million people fighting in the war, so had a big claim to influence in post-war Europe as they had been most affected

How and when was Yugoslavia liberated?

October 1944- Soviet troops gave military support to the Partisan group led by Tito. These forces fought to unify the country and eventually succeeded in 1945

How and when was Czechslovakia liberated?

May 1945- both US and Soviet troops were in the country but the US allowed Soviet troops to take control and a pro-Soviet government was consolidated in the country

How and when was Greece liberated?

October 1944- German troops withdrew from the area and 2 days later British troops came in. There was fighting between two Greek groups until January 1945 when the British general imposed Marshall Law and forced the communists to withdraw from Greece.

Why was Europe so important after WW2?

-it was one of the most powerful economic regions in the world

-control of the continent was often contested

-Europe controlled most of the rest of the world through imperialism

Why was Germany so important?

Germany was the economic and industrial powerhouse of Europe as well as being very central, so it had links to many other parts of the continent

Why was Poland important for the Soviets?

-Poland acted as a bridge to the rest of Europe, if they could control Poland they could inspire communist revolutions in the rest of the continent, in particular Germany

-the control of Poland was also important for the safety of the USSR as Poland had often been used to access the USSR, e.g in 1941

What agreements were made at the Yalta conference?

-the Declaration on Liberated Europe

-agree to hold free and fair elections in Poland (the government will be a mix of communists and nationalists)

-they agree to move Poland's border further west to give the USSR more ground in the east

-agree to split Germany into 4 zones of governance

-soviets agree to help the USA in Japan 3 months after end of fighting

-Stalin agrees to join the UN

What did the Declaration on Liberated Europe state?

Every country that had been occupied by the Nazis would be helped by the Big Three to ensure free and fair elections in their country, the Grand Alliance would consult each other before making any moves/decisions in Europe

What was the issue with Stalin agreeing to the Declaration on Liberated Europe?

He opened himself up to bad faith from the other countries when he inevitably broke his word and interfered with the countries in Eastern Europe

What had changed between Yalta and Potsdam?

-Roosevelt died and replaced by Truman

-Germany surrenders

-US test atom bomb

-Churchill unelected

-USSR enters war with Japan

How did Truman's approach to Stalin differ from Roosevelt's and why?

Truman took a much tougher stance with Stalin and refused to yield to him on matters of policy. This was largely to do with the successful testing of the atomic bomb which had given the USA a new sense of confidence and power, as well as Truman's personal beliefs as he was a staunch anti-communist.

What was agreed at the Potsdam conference?

-demilitarise germany

-divide Germany and Berlin into 4 zones of occupation

-de-nazifaction

-further ratified UN

-agreed to accept Soviet government in Poland

What disagreements took place at the Potsdam conference?

-disagreed over reparations

-Truman refused to accept Soviet governments in Eastern Europe

Why were Communist regimes popular after the end of WW2?

-they called for radical change

-many had been involved with liberating the Nazis

-there was an economic crisis; capitalism had failed

What Communist policy was particularly appealing after WW2?

Land reforms, redistributing land from the rich to smaller peasants

What other left-wing parties became popular after the war, challenging the communists?

Peasant's parties

Did Stalin immediately want to impose fully communist governments?

No, he was aware that this would be unpalatable to the West so he planned to make government coalitions with other left wing parties like the peasants parties

How did the USSR treat Romania after the war?

As conquered territory, as the Romanians had participated in helping the Nazis invade Russia

Who became Prime Minister of Romania in 1945 and what did his government look like?

Petru Groza- he was part of the Ploughmen's Front (basically a communist party)

His government was broadly representative but in reality all the positions of power were held by communists

What happened between King Michael and Groza in 1947?

Michael opposed many of the communist laws and tried not to give permission for them. Groza invited the king back to Bucharest and then forced him at gunpoint to abdicate, making Romania a communist republic

What did the Romanian communists do after the 1946 election?

They won 84% of the vote (fraud) and then began to remove their political opponents and forcibly merge other left wing parties with the communists

What reforms did Groza's government bring in that the King disapproved of?

Land reforms and women's suffrage

How did Poland come to be communist?

-Stalin imposed the pro-Soviet Lublin government but allowed people from other parties

-he agreed to free elections but made sure that the results went his way (so as not to break the Declaration on liberated Europe)

-He began to weaken other parties such as the peasant party

Who did Stalin remove from power in Poland and why?

Deputy Prime Minister Gomuka was removed in 1948 as he was anti-Soviet, replaced with a pro-Stalinist called Bierut

What percentage of the vote did the Czech communists win in 1946?

38% of the vote-were popular due to a large working class and their role in liberation

How did the USSR get involved in putting communism in Czechoslovakia?

the Soviets pressured the President Benes to resign and give up power to the communists and then murdered the pro-Western foreign minister Masaryk

How much of the vote did the communist party win in Hungary?

17%

How did the Soviets use force to establish communism in Hungary?

-they set up a secret police called the AVH to persecute opposition

-removed the elected government and replaced it with a puppet government

-forced the Social Democrat party to merge with the communists

What did Hungary publish in 1949?

A new constitution almost identical to the Soviet one

What did the Soviets do to secure power in Bulgaria?

They executed the leader of the Agrarian party Petkov after he won 20% of the votes in the election

How did the Soviets use force to spread communism in Bulgaria?

-they forcibly merge other parties with the communists

-by April 1947 all other parties had been banned

What evidence shows that communism was popular in Italy?

membership of the communist party grew from 5000 in 1943 to 1.7 million in 1945

What did Stalin do about communism in the West?

He encouraged them to make coalition governments and not have a revolution as he wanted to focus on the East.

What was the name of the coalition government set up in Poland in 1945?

The Provisional Government of National Unity

What was Deputy PM of Poland Gomulka accused of?

'nationalist deviation'

How did US foreign policy begin to change at the beginning of the Cold War?

They began to become more concerned with the USSR's actions and their solidification of a military presence in Eastern Europe

What did James Byrnes want for Eastern Europe?

"a government both friendly to the Soviet Union and representative of all the democratic elements in the country"

Why was Byrne's vision of Eastern Europe impossible?

most of Eastern Europe was anti-Russia due to their history of domination so electing a pro-Moscow government democratically would have been very unlikely

Why was Roosevelt facing pressure to take a tougher stance against Stalin?

There was a large Polish-American part of the Democrats who wanted a tougher stance over Poland

Why was Poland the key issue for the US after the end of the war?

There was a power vacuum in Poland with the strong presence of the Red Army, if the Soviets gained control of Poland they could easily gain control of the rest of Europe

Why does Kennan say Russia is fearful of the West? (quote to back up too)

He says that Russia is insecure about the strength of their economy and their leadership, they are worried that, if their citizens learn of life in the West they will cause unrest

"unable to stand comparison or contact with political systems of Western countries"

Why was the location of the Iron Curtain speech significant?

It was in America and Harry Truman was in the audience so it was significant as this could influence foreign policy

How did Churchill describe Soviet actions in Eastern Europe in the Iron Curtain speech?

He described them as creating a 'soviet sphere' and exercising an 'increasing measure of control'

What was Churchill's main problem with the USSR in his Iron Curtain speech?

He felt that they were not allowing free elections in Eastern Europe which went against the Declaration on Liberated Europe

What does Churchill say about the communist parties in Western Europe?

He says that they are becoming stronger and gaining influence

-communists fifth columns are established and work in complete unity [with Moscow]

Did Churchill think the Soviets wanted war (in his Iron Curtain Speech)?

No, he said they did not want war but everything that came with it, power, influence, expansion of communism

What does Churchill urge the West to do in his Iron Curtain Speech?

Keep their military power strong and stay united so that Stalin does not feel he can take liberties with them

What was Stalin's response to the Iron Curtain speech?

He said that he had a right to control Eastern Europe bc Eastern Europe had been used to invade him before and it was a justified part of his self defence

What were the aims set out in the Truman Doctrine?

Truman wants to:

- adopt a policy of containment, providing economic and military support to countries in Europe to stop them succumbing to communism

-improve the economies of Europe

-uphold the principles of freedom and democracy

When was the Truman Doctrine?

March 1947

How did US foreign policy change as a result of the Truman Doctrine?

They are becoming internationalist and believe that the best way to promote the security of the USA is to squash communism globally. They are also now openly antagonistic to the USSR.

What attitude to the USSR is put forward in the Truman Doctrine?

Truman makes the USSR appear evil, a threat to world peace. There is a lot of 'us vs them' sentiment, and that the USSR are acting unlawfully and untrustworthy

What are the consequences of the Truman Doctrine?

-increased tensions between superpowers

-consolidation of spheres of influence

-competition for influence e.g. in Asia

When was the Greek Civil War?

1946-49

Who were the two sides of the Greek Civil War and who did the UK support?

The communists (KKE) vs the monarchists

Britain supported the monarchists

Why does the US get involved in Greece in 1947?

The UK can no longer afford to keep supporting the monarchists so ask Truman to take up the mantel

Was Stalin involved in the Greek Civil War?

No, Stalin was not funding the KKE or involved in the war. He did not want to get involved in revolutions he could not control.

How much money did the Truman Doctrine promise Greece and Turkey?

$400,000,000

Why was the US worried about the outcome of the Greek Civil War?

They thought that Stalin was funding the communists so, if they won, he would have influence in the region. Also worried that a domino effect would take place and communism would spread throughout the Middle East.

Why were Turkey and Greece geopolitically important to the USA?

They provided access to the Middle East which was rich with oil and natural resources. They also want access to the Turkish Straits for shipping.

How do divisions over Germany manifest in 1946-47?

In 1946 the USA and UK stop taking reparations from their German zones and in 1947 their zones were merged to from Bizonia (France joined in 1948 to form Trizonia)

How did the USA encourage loyalty to America in Europe in 1945-7?

-end to de-Nazification in Germany

-Marshall plan

-supported Christian Democratic parties in elections

What was the argument made by Ernest Bevin at the Moscow Conference of Foreign Ministers 1947?

Stalin wanted Germany to be unified but Bevin said economic unity had to come before political unity. Stalin refused which allowed the USA and UK to keep Bizonia. Failing successfully.

How much money was given in the Marshall Plan?

$13.5 billion to 16 countries

What were the altruistic aims of the Marshall Plan?

-to help countries rebuild after WW2

-to improve the economies of suffering countries, leading to a better quality of life for those living in the aftermath of WW2

What were the self-serving aims of the Marshall Plan?

-wanted to make communism less attractive by making people wealthier

-a clause stated that countries receiving aid must buy from American businesses, strengthening the US economy

What are the two strands of containment?

-political and military containment (e.g. in Greece)

-economic containment: Marshall plan

What was the Soviet response to Marshall Aid?

Initially they were enthusiastic, but foreign minister Molotov realised it was essentially anti-Soviet and this lead to the USSR rejecting it after the Paris Conference in 1947