Paper 2 Aice

Outline a Laboratory experiment in terms of reliability and validity

-Take place in artificial environment to participants in study.

- Wide variety of controls to make sure that IV is affecting DV

-High standardization, High internal validity, High reliability

-Low ecological validity, lack of mundane realism

Outline a Field experiment in terms of reliability and validity

-Occur in real natural environments instead of an artificial lab.

-There is still some control of IV but not as a great as a lab.

-High ecological validity,

-Ethical issues could arise due to participants not being aware of their participation in the study.

-Situational variables make it difficult to control IV and DV

Outline a Natural Experiment in terms of reliability and validity

-Natural IV

-IV can't be controlled

-Usually occur in natural environments

-High ecological validity and mundane realism

-Low validity, low reliability.

Describe the main features of a case study.

-ONLY involves one person or one group of people.

-Data gathered is highly valid as it is usually gathered for a very long time.

- May be biased due to researcher's close relationship with participant.

-NOT generalizable due to the small sample.

Describe positive and negative correlations.

Positive; both variables increase together

Negative; one variable goes up while another decreases

Evaluate the use of correlations in psychological research, including causality.

Can be very helpful to proving a relationship between two variables.

Casualty; can be gathered through a series of self-reports

Correlation does not equal causation!

Outline what an aim is. (Regular and correlational)

Reg: States the purpose of what a study wants to demonstrate

Correlational: Used to look for a link or relationship between two measured variables

Outline what a hypothesis is.

A testable statement

Directional (one-tailed) hypothesis

Predicts that there will be an effect.

Ex) Students using revision apps will learn better than students using mind maps.

Non-directional (two-tailed) hypothesis

Says that there will be an effect but does not state the direction.

Ex) There is a difference between the effectiveness of mind maps and revision maps in helping students learn.

- For Correlational it simply predicts for a change in the variables.

Ex) There will be a correlation between the number of computer games a student plays and their final A Level grade. (Correlational example)

Null hypotheses

Any difference in the DV between levels of the IV is so small that it's due to chance.

Ex) There will be no difference between students that eat ice cream and students that fail their psychology exam.

Ex) Any difference between students that eat ice cream and students that fail their psychology exam is due to chance.

Describe what an IV is.

The manipulated variable

Describe what a DV is.

What is being measured and should be changed by the IV.

Describe an independent measures design.

Participants go through different levels of the independent variable (different group.)

-No order effects

Describe a matched pairs design.

Participants are matched with similar traits.

-No order effects and p's participate in only one level of the IV.

Describe a repeated measures design.

P's undergo every level of the IV.

-Yes order effects (Practice and fatigue effects)

What is the difference between controls and standardization?

Controls: Keep things equal between levels of IV (groups)

Standardization: Keeping things equal between participants.

What are extraneous variables?

any variables other than the independent variable that seem likely to influence the dependent variable in a study

-Pilot studies can be used to control these.

What are uncontrolled variables?

other variables that may skew your results but were overlooked or can't be controlled for

What are participant variables?

The ways in which each participant varies from the other, and how this could affect the results

What are situational variables?

factors in the environment that can unintentionally affect the results of a study

Describe quantitative data and its use in psychological research.

Quantitative = Numerical

S) Easy to count up

S) Objective

W) Participant responses are limited

W) Can't identify outliers

Describe qualitative data and its use in psychological research.

Qualitative = In-depth with detail

S) Allows for the easy identification of outliers

S) Very valid as p's can freely express their opinions

W) Researchers must be objective, kinda difficult without inter-rather reliability.

What are all of the human ethical guidelines (No definition just the names)

Informed consent, Protection (Physical and psychological), Right to Withdraw, Deception, Confidentiality, Privacy, and Debriefing.

What are all of the animal ethical guidelines (No definitions just the names)

Replacement, Species and Strain, Number of Animals, Procedures: Pain and Distress, Housing, (Reward, deprivation, and aversive stimuli), and (Anesthesia, analgesia, and euthanasia.)

What is validity?

the degree to which a test measures what it says it measures.

ecological validity (external)

The extent to which findings from a research study can be generalised to other settings and situations.

Outline criterion validity.

The way of assessing the validity of a task by comparing results with another measure.

Compare subjectivity and objectivity.

Subjectivity- Analyzing data based on one's own thoughts and opinions

Objectivity- Analyzing data based on fact with no need to use personal judgements.

Describe reliability

Consistency over time and whether replicating a study would produce similar results.

Describe inter-rater/observer reliability

Test of consistency for qualitative data:

Describe test/re-test reliability

Test of consistency of a questionnaire based measure.

1. Group of participants take a questionnaire

2. After some time the same group of participants take the same questionnaire.

3. Correlate the overall results, if a positive correlation occurs then yay.

What is meant by 'measure of central tendency' and when do you use it?

How data clusters around a central point in a data set.

Mean, Mode, and Median.

What is meant by 'measure of spread' and when do you use it?

How spread the data is around a measure of central tendency.

Range and Standard Deviation

What is a mean and how do you find it? When should it be used?

The average:

1. Add all the scores collected

2. Divide this total by the number of scores that were added up.

Most useful when trying to take every score into account.

What is a median and how do you find it? When should it be used?

The middlemost score.

1. Rank the data from the smallest number to the largest number

2. Eliminate one score from the lowest end of the ranked data and the highest end of the ranked data.

3. Continue to do this until there are 1 or 2 values left.

It is only used with numerical data on a linear scale.

What is a mode and how do you find it? When should it be used?

The most common score in your data set.

-To calculate, draw a frequency table and see which score has the highest frequency.

What is a range and how do you find it? When should it be used?

The difference between the highest and lowest values in a set of numbers.

-used when data is at least ordinal.

What is a scatter graph?

A graph that shows the independent variable vs dependent variable (continuous data)

Literally everything is put in there so it looks like a million little dots.

What is normal distribution?

A "normal" distribution is also known as a bell-shaped curve or Gaussian curve. In a Gaussian or normal distribution, the mean , mode and median would all have the same (or similar) value and would look like the figure.

How many research methods are there?

3
-Experiments
-Self Reports
-Case study

Deck 1: Experimental Methods (Lab & Field)

Lab Experiments: The 4 Pillars

1. IV,
2. DV,
3. Controls/Standards,
4. Design.

Deck 1: Experimental Methods (Lab & Field)

Field Experiments: The 4 Pillars

1. Same 4 as Lab,
2. Location & Observation methods/collection change.

Deck 1: Experimental Methods (Lab & Field)

Independent Measures Weakness (Red note)

Participant variables (individual differences).

Deck 1: Experimental Methods (Lab & Field)

Matched Pairs Strength (Red note)

Reduces participant variables

Approaches and Issues/Debates
-Approaches to Psychology-

How many Approaches are there?

4 Approaches
1) Biological Approach
2) Cognitive Approach
3) Learning Approach
4) Social Approach

Approaches and Issues/Debates
-Approaches to Psychology-

In the Biological Approach what are the main research methods?

Labratory Expirements and Brain Scaning Techniques

Approaches and Issues/Debates
-Approaches to Psychology-

In the Cognitive Approach how many case studies?

1) Pozzulo
2) Baron Cohen
3) Andrade

Approaches and Issues/Debates
-Approaches to Psychology-

In the Cognitive Approach what are the main research methods?

Laboratory Expirements

Approaches and Issues/Debates
-Approaches to Psychology-

In the Learning Approach how many case studies?

1) Saavedra and Silverman
2) Fagen
3) Bandura

Approaches and Issues/Debates
-Approaches to Psychology-

In the Learning Approach what are the main research methods?

Labatory Experiments and Observations

Approaches and Issues/Debates
-Approaches to Psychology-

In the Social Approach how many case studies?

1) Pilivian
2) Perry
3) Milgram

Approaches and Issues/Debates
-Approaches to Psychology-

In the Social Approach what are the main research methods?

Questionaires and Interviews

Approaches and Issues/Debates
-Issues and Debates-

What are the 5 Issues and Debates

1. Application to Everyday Life

2. Individual and Situational Explanations

3. Nature vs Nurture

4. Use of Children in Psychological Research

5. Use of Animals in Psychological Research

Approaches and Issues/Debates
-Issues and Debates-

What is the main idea of “The use of children in pychological research'“

Researchers using children must get parental permission and use simple language so the kids actually understand the study. They also have to plan for kids getting bored or tired faster than adults while ensuring the research stays ethical.

Approaches and Issues/Debates
-Issues and Debates-

What is the main idea of “The use of animals in pychological research'“

Researchers must follow laws to protect animals by using the minimum number needed and providing stress-free housing that fits the species' social needs. While animal studies allow for research that would be unethical on humans, it can be hard to apply the results to people because our "make-ups" are so different.

Approaches and Issues/Debates
-Issues and Debates-

What is the main idea of “The application of pscyhology to everday life'“

Psychological research is most valuable when its findings can be used to improve everyday life, such as finding better treatments for mental illness. However, making a study useful is hard because results from a lab might not work in the real world (ecological validity) or might only apply to one group of people.

Approaches and Issues/Debates
-Issues and Debates-

What is the main idea of “Individual and situational explanations'“

Individual explanations argue that behavior comes from a person's internal traits (like personality or genes), while situational explanations argue that behavior is a reaction to external factors (like the environment or social pressure).

Approaches and Issues/Debates
-Issues and Debates-

What is the main idea of “Nature versus Nurture“

Nature is the idea that behavior is inborn (genetics and biology), while nurture is the idea that behavior is learned through life experiences and our environment.

Implementing the test

each test was individually administered in a quiet room at either Cambridge or Exeter

Andrade (Scribbling/Doodling) Summary

• Aim: To see if doodling aids concentration in a boring task.

• Strength 1 (Standardization): All participants used the same dull-colored room and listened to the same monotone recording, making it highly reliable.

• Strength 2 (Quantitative Data): The scores for names and places were objective, making it easy to compare the doodling vs. control group.

• Weakness 1 (Ecological Validity): Listening to a tape and circling squares is an artificial task that doesn't reflect how we use memory in real life.

• Weakness 2 (Ethics/Deception): Participants were misled about the purpose (they didn't know they’d have a surprise memory test), though this was necessary to avoid demand characteristics.

Baron-Cohen (Eyes Test / Pozzulo style evaluation)

• Aim: To test if adults with AS/HFA have a deficit in "Theory of Mind" and to see if there is a female superiority in the Eyes Test.

• Strength 1 (Validity): The use of a "Glossary" ensured that any low scores were due to a lack of social insight, not a lack of vocabulary.

• Strength 2 (Comparisons): Using four different groups (including a "normal" control) allowed for clear comparisons of social impairment.

• Weakness 1 (Ecological Validity): In real life, eyes move and faces change expression; static black-and-white photos are quite unrealistic.

• Weakness 2 (Sample Size): The AS/HFA group was relatively small (15 people), which may not represent everyone on the spectrum.

Saavedra & Silverman (Button Phobia)

• Aim: To investigate the cause of a button phobia in a child and treat it using "evaluative learning" (disgust) rather than just fear.

• Strength 1 (Qualitative Data): Because it was a Case Study, they gathered rich, in-depth data about the boy's specific feelings and history.

• Strength 2 (Ethics): The mother gave informed consent, and the child's distress was monitored throughout the imagery exposure.

• Weakness 1 (Generalizability): Since it was only one 9-year-old boy, the findings about button phobia might not apply to adults or other children.

• Weakness 2 (Subjectivity): The "Feelings Thermometer" is a self-report; the boy might have given lower scores just to please the researchers (social desirability).

Perry (Personal Space)

• Aim: To see if "empathy" levels (high vs. low) affect how much personal space a person prefers in different social situations.

• Strength 1 (Standardization): The "Computerized Simulation" (the CID) was identical for all participants, ensuring the measurement of space was precise.

• Strength 2 (Application): Findings help us understand how to design environments (like clinics) for people with different social comfort levels.

• Weakness 1 (Ecological Validity): Sitting at a computer and moving a circle is very different from actually standing next to a stranger.

• Weakness 2 (Sample): The participants were all students, who might have different social boundaries than older adults or different cultures.

Milgram (Obedience)

• Aim: To investigate how obedient people would be to an authority figure who asked them to go against their conscience.

• Strength 1 (Standardization): The "Prods" used by the experimenter (e.g., "Please continue") were exactly the same for every participant.

• Strength 2 (Internal Validity): The fact that participants showed extreme stress (sweating, trembling) proves they truly believed the situation was real.

• Weakness 1 (Ethics): Massive deception and lack of protection from psychological harm (guilt and stress).

• Weakness 2 (Sample Bias): Originally used only males from New Haven, which makes it harder to generalize to women or other cultures.

Holzel (Mindfulness)

• Aim: To investigate if an 8-week mindfulness course could lead to physical changes (increased gray matter) in the brain.

• Strength 1 (Scientific Equipment): The use of MRI scans provides objective, biological data that is not subject to human bias.

• Strength 2 (Control Group): Comparing the "meditators" to a "waitlist" group helped prove the brain changes were likely due to the course, not just time passing.

• Weakness 1 (Sample Bias): Participants were people who wanted to learn mindfulness, so they might have been more motivated than the average person.

• Weakness 2 (Individual Differences): Since they didn't scan them every day, it's hard to know exactly when or how the brain changes started.Aim: To investigate if an 8-week mindfulness course could lead to physical changes (increased gray matter) in the brain.

Dement & Kleitman (Sleep and Dreams)

• Aim: To investigate the relationship between REM sleep and dreaming using objective (EEG) and subjective (self-report) measures.

• Strength 1 (Scientific Rigor): The use of the EEG machine allowed for a highly controlled, objective way to measure sleep stages.

• Strength 2 (Control): Participants were told to avoid caffeine and alcohol, which removed "confounding variables" that might affect sleep.

• Weakness 1 (Ecological Validity): Sleeping in a lab with wires attached to your head is not "normal" sleep; this could have altered their dream patterns.

• Weakness 2 (Sample): Only 9 participants (and only 5 studied in depth), which is a very small group to represent all human sleepers.