World History finals

was the head of the Catholic Church who initiated the First Crusade in 1095. He called for a crusade against the “vile muslims”

Pope Urban II

the younger sons of nobility who often did not inherit land or titles, leading them to seek fortunes through military service or the Church.

seconds sons

The first major military expedition by Western Christians to reclaim the Holy Land from Muslim rule, which began in 1096 and culminated in the capture of Jerusalem in 1099.

the 1st crusade

A military campaign conducted by European monarchs, including Richard the Lionheart, aimed at recapturing Jerusalem after its fall in 1187. It took place between 1189 and 1192.

the kings or 3rd crusade

A series of campaigns by Christian states to retake the Iberian Peninsula from Muslim rule, spanning from the 8th to the late 15th century, culminating in the capture of Granada in 1492.

reconquista

A military campaign from Venice originally intended to reclaim the Holy Land that instead culminated in the Sack of Constantinople in 1204.

The 4th crusade

A prolonged conflict between England and France from 1337 to 1453, primarily over territorial disputes and claims to the French throne, featuring significant battles such as Crécy and Agincourt.

Hundred years war

A powerful weapon used extensively by English archers during the Hundred Years' War, notably at battles such as Crécy and Agincourt.

longbow

A French heroine and military leader during the Hundred Years' War, claiming to have received visions from God. She played a crucial role in lifting the siege of Orléans and was later captured and executed.

joan of arc

The bubonic plague, also known as the Black Death, was a devastating pandemic that struck Europe in the 14th century, resulting in millions of deaths and significant social and economic upheaval.

bubonic death

A children's nursery rhyme that originated during the time of the bubonic plague, referencing symptoms of the illness and the associated fear of death.

“ring-around-the-rosy”

A cultural movement that began in Italy during the late 14th century and spread throughout Europe, characterized by a renewed interest in art, science, literature, and the revival of classical learning.

renaissance

An intellectual movement during the Renaissance that emphasized the value of human beings, individualism, and the study of classical texts, focusing on human potential and achievements.

humanism

The prevailing cultural climate of the Renaissance period that celebrated art, innovation, and the revival of classical knowledge, promoting humanism and secularism.

spirit of the renaissance

A German inventor who introduced printing to Europe with his mechanical movable type printing press in the 15th century, greatly facilitating the spread of literature and ideas.

Johannes guttenberg

A German theologian and key figure in the Protestant Reformation, known for his 95 Theses that criticized the Catholic Church's practices and called for reform.

martin luther

A French theologian and pastor during the Protestant Reformation, known for founding Calvinism, which emphasized predestination and the sovereignty of God in salvation.

john calvin

A 16th-century movement initiated to reform the Catholic Church in response to the Protestant Reformation, aiming to address abuses and clarify doctrine.

catholic reformation

A Chinese explorer and diplomat during the early Ming dynasty, known for his voyages across the Indian Ocean, promoting trade and establishing Chinese presence in the region.

zheng he

The King of France from 1643 to 1715, known as the "Sun King," who centralized power in the monarchy and is famous for his extravagant palace at Versailles.

louis XIV

The Queen of England from 1558 to 1603, known for her skilled leadership during the Elizabethan Era, promoting the arts and establishing Protestantism.

elizabeth I of england

A significant ruler of Prussia from 1740 to 1786, noted for his military successes, modernization efforts in government and society, and promotion of the Enlightenment ideals.

Frederick the great of Prussia

Empress of Russia from 1762 to 1796, known for her significant expansion of the Russian Empire, cultural reforms, and efforts to modernize the country along Enlightenment lines.

Catherine the Great of Russia

An intellectual movement in Europe during the 17th and 18th centuries that emphasized reason, science, and individualism over tradition and religious authority.

enlightment

A term used to describe the intellectuals of the Enlightenment who advocated for reason, reform, and progress in society, often promoting ideas of liberty, equality, and fraternity.

philosophe

A leading figure of the Enlightenment, he was a French writer and philosopher known for his advocacy of civil liberties, criticism of the Church, and promotion of freedom of speech and tolerance.

voltaire

A French philosopher and writer of the Enlightenment, he is best known for his work "The Social Contract," where he explores ideas of democracy, individual freedom, and the role of government in society.

rousseau

An English philosopher and influential thinker of the Enlightenment, he is known for his theories on the social contract, government legitimacy through consent, and natural rights, particularly life, liberty, and property.

john locke

A French political philosopher of the Enlightenment, he is best known for his work "The Spirit of the Laws," in which he advocated for the separation of powers in government to prevent tyranny and protect individual freedoms.

montesquieu

An English writer and advocate for women's rights during the Enlightenment, she is best known for her book "A Vindication of the Rights of Woman," in which she argues for gender equality and the education of women.

mary walstonecraft

A form of government where the powers of the government are limited by a constitution, ensuring that the rule of law governs the state and protecting individual rights and freedoms.

constitutional democracy

A document adopted on July 4, 1776, by the Second Continental Congress, declaring the American colonies' separation from Britain and outlining the principles of individual rights and government by consent.

declaration of independence

A system that ensures no single branch of government becomes too powerful by dividing authority among the executive, legislative, and judicial branches, allowing each to limit the powers of the others.

checks and balances

A Portuguese prince known for his role in the early exploration of the Atlantic Ocean and for initiating the Age of Discoveries.

prince henry

A system of enslaving people, often involving the ownership of individuals as property, where they can be bought, sold, and forced to work without compensation.

chattle slavery

A system established by the Spanish during colonization in the Americas that granted colonists the right to demand labor or tribute from Indigenous people in exchange for protection and religious instruction.

encomienda

The brutal sea journey taken by enslaved Africans aboard ships from Africa to the Americas, characterized by overcrowding, disease, and high mortality rates.

middle passage

Exchange: The widespread transfer of plants, animals, cultures, human populations, technology, and ideas between the Americas and the Old World following Christopher Columbus's voyages.

columbian exchange

A business entity where different stocks can be bought and owned by shareholders. It played a significant role in funding exploration and colonization during the Age of Discovery.

joint-stock company

A form of government where a single ruler has complete control over the government and its people, often justified by divine right or hereditary rule.

absolute monarch

a political doctrine asserting that a monarch's authority comes directly from God, legitimizing absolute rule.

divine right

A prominent absolute monarch who ruled Spain during its Golden Age, known for his attempts to expand Spanish influence and Catholicism across Europe.

philip II of spain