section 13

Big Five

A theory that identifies five key dimensions of personality: openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism. For example, a person high in extraversion may enjoy socializing and being active.

Id

The primal part of the personality that operates on the pleasure principle, seeking immediate gratification of basic needs and desires. For example, a child crying for food is driven by the id.

Pleasure principle

The instinctual drive that seeks immediate satisfaction of desires and avoidance of pain. An example is a person indulging in a favorite dessert without considering health consequences.

Ego

The rational part of the personality that mediates between the desires of the id and the realities of the world. For instance, the ego helps a person decide to wait for a treat rather than take it immediately.

Reality principle

The understanding that one cannot always act on impulses and needs to consider reality. For example, an adult postponing a vacation to save money for bills embodies the reality principle.

Superego

The moral component of personality that internalizes societal standards for right and wrong. For example, feeling guilty for cheating on a test reflects the influence of the superego.

Psychosexual stages

Freud's five stages of childhood development which are the id’s pleasure-seeking energies focus on distinct endogenous zones.

1. oral (0-18 months): pleasure centers on the mouth- suck, biting, and chewing

2. anal (18-36 months): pleasure focuses on bowel and bladder elimination; coping with demands for control

3. phallic (3-6 years): pleasure zones in the genitals; coping with incestuous sexual feelings

4. latency (6 years to puberty): a phase of dormant sexual feelings

5. genital (puberty on): maturation of sexual interest. An example is how fixation in the oral stage may lead to dependency.

Oedipus/Electra complex

A child's feelings of desire for the opposite-sex parent and jealousy toward the same-sex parent. For instance, a boy may feel rivalry with his father for his mother's attention and vice versa.

Identification

The process by which a child adopts the characteristics of the same-sex parent to resolve the Oedipus/Electra complex. An example is a girl imitating her mother's behavior and values.

Exploring the self

investigating one's own thoughts, emotions, motivations, and behaviors to understand "who I am" and "why I do what I do". It enhances self-awareness, improves emotional regulation, and boosts self-esteem by aligning actions with core values and goals. For example, Writing down feelings about a challenging work situation to understand personal triggers.

Defense mechanisms

Psychological strategies employed to cope with reality and maintain self-image.

• Denial: Refusing to accept reality or facts, acting as if a painful event or feeling does not exist.

  • Example: A person continues to smoke despite being diagnosed with lung cancer, telling themselves "it won't happen to me".

• Regression: Reverting to behaviors from an earlier stage of development when confronted with stress or anxiety.

  • Example: An adult having a temper tantrum or throwing objects when they are told they cannot get their way.

• Projection: Attributing one’s own unacceptable thoughts, feelings, or motives to another person.

  • Example: A person who is rude to others accuses everyone else of being rude to them.

• Reaction Formation: Behaving in a manner opposite to one’s true, uncomfortable feelings to hide them.

  • Example: Treating someone you strongly dislike in an excessively friendly or warm manner.

• Rationalization: Creating logical or socially acceptable excuses to justify unacceptable behavior or failures.

  • Example: A student blames the professor for failing an exam instead of admitting they did not study.

• Displacement: Redirecting emotions (usually anger) from a dangerous or threatening target to a safer, less threatening substitute.

  • Example: A person angry at their boss comes home and screams at their spouse instead of confronting the boss.

For instance, a person using denial to cope with a serious health diagnosis is employing a defense mechanism.

Fixation (oral/anal/phallic)

A condition where an individual remains attached to an earlier psychosexual stage due to unresolved conflicts. An example of anal fixation is being excessively orderly or messy.

Reaction formation

A defense mechanism where an individual behaves in the opposite way to their true feelings. For example, a person who is angry at a co-worker may behave overly nice to them.

Rationalization

A defense mechanism that involves explaining an unacceptable behavior or feeling in a logical way to avoid the true reasons. For instance, saying you didn't want a promotion because it would be too stressful.

Sublimation

A defense mechanism that involves channeling unacceptable impulses into socially acceptable behaviors. An example is channeling anger into sports.

Displacement

A defense mechanism where an individual redirects their impulses toward a safer target. For example, a person angry at their boss may come home and argue with their spouse.

Repression

A defense mechanism that involuntarily pushes distressing memories or thoughts out of conscious awareness. For example, forgetting a traumatic event from childhood.

MMPI

Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory, a widely used personality test that assesses various psychological conditions and assesses people’s personality traits. An example of use is in clinical settings to diagnose mental disorders.

Projective tests

Personality assessments, such as a TAT or Rorschach, that involve ambiguous images to uncover underlying motives or conflicts. An example is the Rorschach inkblot test, where responses reveal personality traits.

Rorschach test

A projective test consisting of inkblots where the subjects' perceptions of the 10 inkblots are analyzed to understand their personality. For instance, different interpretations of the same inkblot can indicate various personality traits.

TAT test

The Thematic Apperception Test, a projective psychological test where subjects create stories about ambiguous scenes, revealing their underlying motives and emotions. For example, creating a story about a child watching a group of adults can reveal themes of trust, fear, or desire for approval.

Trait perspective

An approach to understanding personality that focuses on measuring and evaluating individual traits and behaviors. An example is the use of the Big Five personality traits (openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism) to describe and predict an individual's behavior in various situations.

Eysenck Personality Questionnaire

A personality test developed by Hans Eysenck that measures the dimensions of personality, including extraversion-introversion- and emotional stability- instability . For example, a person may score high on extraversion, indicating a sociable nature.

Myers-Briggs Personality Inventory

A personality assessment that categorizes individuals into 16 distinct personality types based on preferences in four pairs of opposing traits. An example is an INFP being described as empathetic and idealistic.

Sigmund Freud

The founding father of psychoanalysis who developed theories of the unconscious mind, defense mechanisms, and psychosexual development. An example is his concept of the id, ego, and superego.

Projection

A defense mechanism where individuals attribute their own unacceptable thoughts and feelings onto others. For instance, feeling angry at someone and accusing them of being angry instead.

Self-concept

The understanding and perception of oneself, including beliefs about personal attributes and who one is. An example is someone viewing themselves as kind and sociable.

Self-actualization

The process of realizing and fulfilling one's potential and capabilities. An example is pursuing a personal passion to achieve personal growth.

Unconditional positive regard

A concept by Carl Rogers where an individual is accepted and valued without conditions or judgments. An example is a parent showing love to their child regardless of the child's actions.

Social-cognitive perspective

An approach to understanding personality that emphasizes the role of social interactions and internal cognitive processes. For example, a person learns behaviors by observing others within their environment.

Reciprocal Influences

The notion that personal factors, behavior, and the environment influence each other. An example is how someone’s optimism can affect their behavior, which in turn influences how others treat them.

Personal Control

The degree to which individuals believe they have power over their environment and their ability to influence outcomes. An example is an individual feeling empowered to enact change in their workplace.

Learned helplessness

A mental state resulting from a perceived lack of control over outcomes, leading to a resignation to failure. For example, a student who consistently fails may stop trying altogether.

Optimism/pessimism

A personality trait where an optimistic person tends to expect positive outcomes, while a pessimistic person expects negative outcomes. An example of optimism is someone viewing failure as a learning opportunity.

Self-serving Bias

a readiness to perceive ourselves favorably. An example is a student attributing a good grade to their intelligence but blaming a bad grade on unfair grading.

Collectivism/individualism

Cultural pattern where collectivism emphasizes group harmony and loyalty, while individualism emphasizes personal independence and self-promotion. An example of collectivism is valuing family decisions over personal desires.

Spotlights effect

The tendency to overestimate the extent to which others notice our appearance and behavior. For instance, feeling that everyone is paying attention to minor flaws in one's outfit.