Chapter 15 Public Speaking - Understanding Argument

argument

presenting claims and supporting them with evidence and reasoning

claim

a position or assertion that a speaker wants an audience to accept

evidence

Supporting materials— narratives, examples, definitions, testimony, facts, and statistics—that a speaker presents to reinforce a claim.

Reasoning

The method or process used to link claims to evidence

conclusion

a primary claim or assertion

premise

a claim that provides reasons to support a conclusion

enthylmemes

an argument in which a premise or conclusion is unstated

qualifier

a word or phrase that clarifies, modifies, or limits the meaning of another word or phrase

logical appeals

Use of rational thought based on logic, facts, and analysis to influence an audience; also known as logos

appeals to speaker credibility

Creating a perception of the speaker as competent, trustworthy, dynamic, and sociable to influence an audience; also known as ethos

emotional appeals

Use of emotional evidence and stimulation of feelings to influence and audience

appeals to cultural beliefs

use of values, beliefs, embedded in cultural narratives or stories to influence an audience, also called mythos

motivated reasoning

the prejudices, biases, and preferences people have that influence how they interpret information

deductive reasoning

reasoning from a general condition to a specific case

syllogism

a form of deductive reasoning consisting of a major premise, minor premise, and conclusion

inductive reasoning

supporting a claim with specific cases or instances, also called reasoning by example

casual reasoning

Linking two events or actions to claim that one resulted in the other

analogical reasoning

comparing two similar objects, processes, concepts, or events and suggesting what holds true for one, hold true for another

fallacy

an error in making an argument

false dilemma fallacy

argument in which a speaker reduces available choices to only two, even though other alternatives exist, aka the either or fallacy

begging the question

argument in which a speaker uses a premise to imply the truth of the conclusion or asserts that the validity of the conclusion is self evident; also called circular reasoning

slippery slope fallacy

argument in which a speaker asserts that one event will necessarily lead to another without showing any logical connection between the two events

ad ignorantiam

argument in which a speaker suggests that because a claim hasn’t been shown to be false, it must be true; also called an appeal to ignorance

red herring

argument that introduces irrelevant evidence to distract an audience from the real issue

comparative evidence fallacy

argument in which a speaker uses statistics or compares numbers in ways that misrepresent the evidence and mislead the audience

ad populum fallacy

argument in which a speaker appeals to popular attitudes and emotions without offering evidence to support claims

appeal to tradition fallacy

argument in which a speaker asserts that the status quo is better than any new idea or approach

division fallacy

argument in which a speaker assumes that what is true of the whole is also true of the parts that make up the whole

hasty generalization fallacy

argument in which a speaker draws a conclusion based on too few or inadequate examples

post hoc fallacy

argument in which a speaker concludes a casual relationship exists simply because one event follows another in time; aka the false cause fallacy

weak analogy fallacy

argument in which a speaker compares two dissimilar things, ideas, or concepts making the comparison inaccurate

ad hominem fallacy

argument in which a speaker rejects another speaker’s claim based on that speaker’s character rather than the evidence the speaker presents; also called the against the person fallacy

guilt by association fallacy

argument in which a speaker suggests that something is wrong with another speaker’s claims by associating those claims with someone the audience finds objectionable; also called the bad company fallacy

straw man fallacy

Argument in which a speaker misrepresents another speaker’s argument so that only a shell of the opponent’s argument remains

loaded word fallacy

argument in which a speaker uses emotionally laden words to evaluate claims based on a misleading emotional response rather than the evidence presented