Government & Politics

Government

Serves the two broad purposes of providing order and promoting the general welfare.

Politics

The process that determines what government does; when people feel treated equally, they have more respect for the political system.

Political Conflict

Conflict and compromise are natural parts of politics; issues like national debt, abortion, and health care reflect disagreements among the American people and often require compromise within government.

Political Process

Elections determine who represents citizens; rules and procedures determine who has power in Congress and other branches.

Declaration of Independence

Document declaring American independence from Britain; foundational statement of political philosophy.

Articles of Confederation

The first governing document of the United States; created a weak national government.

Constitution

The current governing document; provides for a strong federal government, resolving many challenges of the Articles of Confederation.

Federalist Papers

Written by Madison, Hamilton, and Jay; argued in favor of ratifying the Constitution.

Antifederalists (Brutus)

Opposed ratification of the Constitution; feared a strong central government.

Bill of Rights

First ten amendments to the Constitution; the Tenth Amendment reserves powers not delegated to the national government to the states or the people.

Legislature (AoC vs. Constitution)

AoC: Unicameral Congress. Constitution: Bicameral Congress (House and Senate).

Members of Congress (AoC vs. Constitution)

AoC: 2–7 members per state. Constitution: 2 senators per state; House representatives apportioned by population.

Voting in Congress (AoC vs. Constitution)

AoC: One vote per state. Constitution: One vote per representative or senator.

Selection of Members (AoC vs. Constitution)

AoC: Appointed by state legislatures. Constitution: House elected by popular vote; Senate appointed by state legislatures.

Chief Executive (AoC vs. Constitution)

AoC: None (only a limited Executive Council). Constitution: President.

National Judiciary (AoC vs. Constitution)

AoC: No general federal courts. Constitution: Supreme Court; Congress authorized to establish national judiciary.

Amendments (AoC vs. Constitution)

AoC: Unanimous consent of all states required. Constitution: Two-thirds of each house of Congress and three-fourths of states.

Power to Coin Money (AoC vs. Constitution)

AoC: Federal government and the states. Constitution: Federal government only.

Taxes (AoC vs. Constitution)

AoC: Apportioned by Congress, collected by states. Constitution: Apportioned and collected by Congress.

Ratification (AoC vs. Constitution)

AoC: Unanimous consent required. Constitution: Nine states required.

Separation of Powers

Divides government into different branches (legislative, executive, judicial), each with distinct areas of authority; designed to protect minority rights and prevent tyranny.

Checks and Balances

Each branch has key powers to check the others: President can veto legislation; Congress can override vetoes and impeach.

Presidential Nominations

The President nominates judges; the Senate confirms or rejects them.

Congressional Impeachment

Congress can impeach and remove the President and federal judges from office.

Permanent Campaign

The constant quest for reelection that drives congressional behavior.

Electoral Connection

Members of Congress listen to constituents in order to remain in power.

Incumbent Advantage

Incumbents benefit from considerable financial resources, name recognition, and a record of work.

Homestyle

When members spend more time in their district than in Washington D.C.

Logrolling

Reciprocity; members of Congress support each other's bills.

Earmarks

Funding directed toward local projects; often included in large omnibus legislation.

House vs. Senate Representation

House: apportioned by population size. Senate: 2 per state.

Speaker of the House

The top leadership position in the House of Representatives.

Congressional Oversight

Congress's role in monitoring that laws are put into force properly.

Budget Making

A key function of Congress.

Incumbent Reelection Rate

House incumbents are reelected at very high rates (typically 90%+) for both Democrats and Republicans.

Head of Government

Presidential role: authority over the executive branch.

Head of State

Presidential role: symbolic and political representative of the nation.

Head Administrator

Presidential role: oversees the bureaucracy; bureaucrats require judgment because laws are often vague.

Bureaucracy

A network of agencies within the executive branch that creates regulations.

Independent Agencies

Executive agencies that are not as subject to political influence.

Vice President

Presides over the Senate.

Executive Orders

Presidential directives; a constitutional and statutory power.

Executive Privilege

A presidential power allowing withholding certain information.

Presidential Pardons

A constitutional authority of the President to forgive individuals of federal offenses.

Veto Power

The President's constitutional authority to reject congressional legislation.

Commander in Chief

The President's constitutional role as head of the armed forces.

Treaty Negotiation

The President negotiates treaties; they require Senate ratification.

Spoils System (Jackson)

Political supporters are rewarded with government jobs.

Progressive Era Reforms

Increase in legislation and creation of the merit system for government employment.

New Deal (FDR)

Response to the Great Depression; greatly expanded the federal government's role.

Great Society (LBJ)

1960s programs including the Civil Rights Act of 1964; emphasized equality of opportunity.

Reagan Revolution

Attempted rollback of government size and spending; largely unsuccessful.

Collusion

Grounds for a court to reject a case: when the parties are not truly adversarial.

Mootness

Grounds for a court to reject a case: the issue no longer matters.

Standing

The requirement that a party have a real stake in the outcome of a case.

Living Constitution vs. Original Intent

Debate over whether the Constitution should be interpreted as a living document or strictly as the founders intended.

Policy Mood

The collective public demand for government action; influences judicial interpretation.

Political Questions Doctrine

Courts refuse to hear cases that are inherently political in nature.

Writ of Certiorari

The process by which the Supreme Court agrees to hear a case; requires agreement of 4 justices.

Original Jurisdiction

The authority of a court to hear a case first, without going through lower courts; Supreme Court has original jurisdiction over certain cases.

Appellate Jurisdiction

The authority of a court to review decisions made by lower courts.

Marbury v. Madison (1803)

Established judicial review; empowered the Supreme Court to declare acts of Congress unconstitutional.

McCulloch v. Maryland (1819)

Established the supremacy of federal laws over state laws.

Gideon v. Wainwright (1963)

The Sixth Amendment right to an attorney extends to felony defendants in state courts.

New York Times v. United States (1971)

First Amendment press protections apply even in national security cases.

Race in Redistricting

Race cannot be the predominant factor in drawing district lines.

Color-Blind Approach

Current Court applies the 14th Amendment's Equal Protection Clause as meaning race should not be a factor in government decision-making.

First Amendment

Freedom of religion, speech, press, assembly, and the right to petition the government.

Second Amendment

Right to bear arms.

Third Amendment

Protection against the forced quartering of troops in one's home.

Fourth Amendment

Protection from unreasonable searches and seizures; probable cause required for warrants.

Fifth Amendment

Protection from forced self-incrimination and double jeopardy; due process; just compensation for taken property.

Sixth Amendment

Right to a speedy and public trial by an impartial jury, right to an attorney.

Seventh Amendment

Right to a jury trial in civil cases involving common law.

Eighth Amendment

Protection from excessive bail, excessive fines, and cruel and unusual punishment.

Ninth Amendment

The listing of specific rights in the Constitution does not deny other rights retained by the people.

Tenth Amendment

Powers not delegated to the national government nor prohibited to the states are reserved to the states or the people.

Civil Liberties

Basic freedoms and liberties; restrict what government can do to you.

Civil Rights

Protection from discrimination; protect you from discrimination by government and individuals.

Due Process Amendments

Amendments 4, 5, 6, 8, and 14 all relate to due process protections.

Civil War Amendments (13th–15th)

Granted rights to newly freed enslaved people.

Federalism

Division of power between the national government and state and local governments.

Dual Federalism / Layer Cake (1789–1937)

National and state governments viewed as distinct with little overlap.

Cooperative Federalism / Marble Cake (1937–present)

Greater cooperation and collaboration between levels of government.

Fiscal Federalism (1937–present)

System of transfer payments from the national government to lower-level governments.

Picket Fence Federalism (1960s–present)

Policy specialists at different levels of government coordinate within policy areas.

Coercive Federalism (1970s–present)

National government uses regulations to pressure states to align with national policy goals.

Ideology

A cohesive set of ideas and beliefs that allows individuals to organize and evaluate the political world.

Libertarian

Political ideology favoring minimal government intervention.

Conservative

Political ideology generally favoring limited government in the economy and traditional values.

Liberal

Political ideology generally favoring government intervention to promote equality.

Ideological Polarization

The tendency to see the world strictly in liberal vs. conservative terms.

Protectionism

Economic/political policy favoring domestic industries over foreign competition.

Culture Wars

Political conflict between strong religious beliefs and secular perspectives.

Public Opinion

What the public thinks about government and politics.

Latent Opinion

A view formed on the spot, without much prior thought.

Political Socialization

The process by which political opinions are shaped by others.

Social Desirability Bias

Survey respondents give socially acceptable answers rather than truthful ones.

Sampling Error (Margin of Error)

The degree to which a survey result may differ from the true population opinion.

Approval Rating

Percentage of Americans who think the President is doing a good job.