Government & Politics

Government & Politics

1. Government — Serves the two broad purposes of providing order and promoting the general welfare.
2. Politics — The process that determines what government does; when people feel treated equally, they have more respect for the political system.
3. Political Conflict — Conflict and compromise are natural parts of politics; issues like national debt, abortion, and health care reflect disagreements among the American people and often require compromise within government.
4. Political Process — Elections determine who represents citizens; rules and procedures determine who has power in Congress and other branches.

Original Documents

1. Declaration of Independence — Document declaring American independence from Britain; foundational statement of political philosophy.
2. Articles of Confederation — The first governing document of the United States; created a weak national government.
3. Constitution — The current governing document; provides for a strong federal government, resolving many challenges of the Articles of Confederation.
4. Federalist Papers — Written by Madison, Hamilton, and Jay; argued in favor of ratifying the Constitution.
5. Antifederalists (Brutus) — Opposed ratification of the Constitution; feared a strong central government.
6. Bill of Rights — First ten amendments to the Constitution; the Tenth Amendment reserves powers not delegated to the national government to the states or the people.

Articles of Confederation vs. Constitution

1. Legislature (AoC vs. Constitution) — AoC: Unicameral Congress. Constitution: Bicameral Congress (House and Senate).
2. Members of Congress (AoC vs. Constitution) — AoC: 2–7 members per state. Constitution: 2 senators per state; House representatives apportioned by population.
3. Voting in Congress (AoC vs. Constitution) — AoC: One vote per state. Constitution: One vote per representative or senator.
4. Selection of Members (AoC vs. Constitution) — AoC: Appointed by state legislatures. Constitution: House elected by popular vote; Senate originally appointed by state legislatures.
5. Chief Executive (AoC vs. Constitution) — AoC: None (only a limited Executive Council). Constitution: President.
6. National Judiciary (AoC vs. Constitution) — AoC: No general federal courts. Constitution: Supreme Court; Congress authorized to establish national judiciary.
7. Amendments (AoC vs. Constitution) — AoC: Unanimous consent of all states required. Constitution: Two-thirds of each house of Congress and three-fourths of states.
8. Power to Coin Money (AoC vs. Constitution) — AoC: Federal government and the states. Constitution: Federal government only.
9. Taxes (AoC vs. Constitution) — AoC: Apportioned by Congress, collected by states. Constitution: Apportioned and collected by Congress.
10. Ratification (AoC vs. Constitution) — AoC: Unanimous consent required. Constitution: Nine states required.

Separation of Powers & Checks and Balances

1. Separation of Powers — Divides government into different branches (legislative, executive, judicial), each with distinct areas of authority; designed to protect minority rights and prevent tyranny.
2. Checks and Balances — Each branch has key powers to check the others: President can veto legislation; Congress can override vetoes and impeach; Senate confirms judicial nominations; Courts interpret laws and executive actions.
3. Presidential Nominations — The President nominates judges; the Senate confirms or rejects them.
4. Congressional Impeachment — Congress can impeach and remove the President and federal judges from office.

Congress

1. Permanent Campaign — The constant quest for reelection that drives congressional behavior.
2. Electoral Connection — Members of Congress listen to constituents in order to remain in power.
3. Incumbent Advantage — Incumbents benefit from considerable financial resources, name recognition, and a record of work.
4. Homestyle — When members spend more time in their district than in Washington D.C.
5. Logrolling — Reciprocity; members of Congress support each other's bills.
6. Earmarks — Funding directed toward local projects; often included in large omnibus legislation.
7. House vs. Senate Representation — House: apportioned by population size. Senate: 2 per state.
8. Speaker of the House — The top leadership position in the House of Representatives.
9. Congressional Oversight — Congress's role in monitoring that laws are put into force properly.
10. Budget Making — A key function of Congress.
11. Incumbent Reelection Rate — House incumbents are reelected at very high rates (typically 90%+) for both Democrats and Republicans.

The Executive Branch

1. Head of Government — Presidential role: authority over the executive branch.
2. Head of State — Presidential role: symbolic and political representative of the nation.
3. Head Administrator — Presidential role: oversees the bureaucracy; bureaucrats require judgment because laws are often vague.
4. Bureaucracy — A network of agencies within the executive branch that creates regulations (rules to influence behavior); gets its power from Congress.
5. Independent Agencies — Executive agencies that are not as subject to political influence.
6. Vice President — Presides over the Senate.
7. Executive Orders — Presidential directives; a constitutional and statutory power, though rare.
8. Executive Privilege — A presidential power derived from sources other than the Constitution directly; allows withholding certain information.
9. Presidential Pardons — A constitutional authority of the President to forgive individuals of federal offenses.
10. Veto Power — The President's constitutional authority to reject congressional legislation.
11. Commander in Chief — The President's constitutional role as head of the armed forces.
12. Treaty Negotiation — The President negotiates treaties; they require Senate ratification.

Presidential/Bureaucratic History

1. Spoils System (Jackson) — Political supporters (campaigners) are rewarded with government jobs.
2. Progressive Era Reforms — Increase in legislation and creation of the merit system for government employment.
3. New Deal (FDR) — Response to the Great Depression; greatly expanded the federal government's role.
4. Great Society (LBJ) — 1960s programs including the Civil Rights Act of 1964; emphasized equality of opportunity and increased support for education.
5. Reagan Revolution — Attempted rollback of government size and spending; largely unsuccessful.

The Courts

1. Collusion — Grounds for a court to reject a case: when the parties are not truly adversarial.
2. Mootness — Grounds for a court to reject a case: the issue no longer matters.
3. Standing — The requirement that a party have a real stake in the outcome of a case.
4. Living Constitution vs. Original Intent — Debate over whether the Constitution should be interpreted as a living document evolving with society, or strictly as the founders intended.
5. Policy Mood — The collective public demand for government action; influences judicial interpretation.
6. Political Questions Doctrine — Courts refuse to hear cases that are inherently political in nature.
7. Writ of Certiorari — The process by which the Supreme Court agrees to hear a case; requires agreement of 4 justices (the "Rule of Four").
8. Original Jurisdiction — The authority of a court to hear a case first, without it going through lower courts first. The Supreme Court has original jurisdiction over cases involving ambassadors and cases involving states.
9. Appellate Jurisdiction — The authority of a court to review decisions made by lower courts.

Landmark Court Cases

1. Marbury v. Madison (1803) — Established judicial review; empowered the Supreme Court to declare acts of Congress unconstitutional.
2. McCulloch v. Maryland (1819) — Established the supremacy of federal laws over state laws.
3. Gideon v. Wainwright (1963) — The Sixth Amendment right to an attorney extends to felony defendants in state courts.
4. New York Times v. United States (1971) — First Amendment press protections apply even in national security cases; increased the burden on the government to justify prior restraint.

Current SCOTUS on Race

1. Race in Redistricting — Race cannot be the predominant factor in drawing district lines.
2. Color-Blind Approach — The current Court applies the 14th Amendment's Equal Protection Clause to mean race should not be a factor in government decision-making.

The Bill of Rights

1. First Amendment — Freedom of religion, speech, press, assembly, and the right to petition the government; separation of church and state.
2. Second Amendment — Right to bear arms.
3. Third Amendment — Protection against the forced quartering of troops in one's home.
4. Fourth Amendment — Protection from unreasonable searches and seizures; probable cause required for warrants.
5. Fifth Amendment — Protection from forced self-incrimination and double jeopardy; due process; just compensation for taken property; grand jury requirement for serious crimes.
6. Sixth Amendment — Right to a speedy and public trial by an impartial jury, right to an attorney, right to confront witnesses.
7. Seventh Amendment — Right to a jury trial in civil cases involving common law.
8. Eighth Amendment — Protection from excessive bail, excessive fines, and cruel and unusual punishment.
9. Ninth Amendment — The listing of specific rights in the Constitution does not deny other rights retained by the people; interpreted to include a general right to privacy.
10. Tenth Amendment — Powers not delegated to the national government nor prohibited to the states are reserved to the states or the people.

Civil Liberties vs. Civil Rights

1. Civil Liberties — Basic freedoms and liberties; rooted in the Bill of Rights and the due process clause of the 14th Amendment; restrict what government can do to you. ("About freedom.")
2. Civil Rights — Protection from discrimination; rooted in laws and the equal protection clause of the 14th Amendment; protect you from discrimination by government and individuals. ("About equality.")

Amendments (Broader)

1. Due Process Amendments — Amendments 4, 5, 6, 8, and 14 all relate to due process protections.
2. Civil War Amendments (13th–15th) — Granted rights to newly freed enslaved people; the 14th Amendment granted equal protection to freed enslaved people.

Federalism

1. Federalism — Division of power between the national government and state and local governments.
2. Dual Federalism / Layer Cake (1789–1937) — National and state governments were viewed as very distinct with little overlap; no interaction between levels of government.
3. Cooperative Federalism / Marble Cake (1937–present) — Greater cooperation and collaboration between levels of government; interactions are common.
4. Fiscal Federalism (1937–present) — System of transfer payments/grants from the national government to lower-level governments; categorical grants give more national control; block grants give states more flexibility.
5. Picket Fence Federalism (1960s–present) — Policy specialists at different levels of government have more in common with each other across levels than with people at the same level working on different issues; coordination happens within policy areas.
6. Coercive Federalism (1970s–present) — National government uses regulations, mandates, and conditions to pressure states to align with national policy goals; includes unfunded mandates.

Ideology & Public Opinion

1. Ideology — A cohesive set of ideas and beliefs that allows individuals to organize and evaluate the political world; usually formed through early family interactions.
2. Libertarian — Political ideology favoring minimal government intervention in both economic and personal matters.
3. Conservative — Political ideology generally favoring limited government in the economy and traditional values.
4. Liberal — Political ideology generally favoring government intervention to promote equality and social programs.
5. Ideological Polarization — The tendency to see the world strictly in liberal vs. conservative terms.
6. Protectionism — Economic/political policy favoring domestic industries over foreign competition.
7. Culture Wars — Political conflict between "red state" Americans (tend toward strong religious beliefs) and "blue state" Americans (tend to be more secular).
8. Public Opinion — What the public thinks about government and politics.
9. Latent Opinion — A view formed on the spot, without much prior thought.
10. Political Socialization — The process by which political opinions are shaped by others (family, peers, media, etc.).
11. Social Desirability Bias — Survey respondents give answers they think are socially acceptable rather than truthful ones.
12. Sampling Error (Margin of Error) — The degree to which a survey result may differ from the true population opinion; reputable surveys report this (typically ±3%).
13. Approval Rating — The percentage of Americans who think the President is doing a good job.
14. Policy Mood — The collective public demand for more or less government action; shifts over time in response to political events and elections.

Voting & Elections

1. Democracy — Government by the people.
2. Republic — A system where the interests of the people are represented indirectly through elected leaders.
3. Absolute Majority — More than half the votes (50% + 1).
4. Plurality — The candidate or option with the most votes wins, even without a majority.
5. Electoral College — Winner-take-all allocation of electoral votes in all states except two (Maine and Nebraska).

Linking Institutions

1. Media — Informs citizens about government; a key linking institution.
2. Interest Groups — Connect citizens to government by advocating for specific policies.
3. Political Parties — Connect citizens to government through elections and policy platforms.

Interest Groups

1. Direct Lobbying — Meeting directly with bureaucrats and elected officials to influence policy.
2. Grassroots Lobbying — Encouraging members of the public to contact their own officials.
3. Collective Action — Members of a group working together to produce an outcome that benefits all.
4. Free Riders — Those who benefit from collective action without contributing to it.
5. 501(c)(3) — Tax-exempt nonprofit; contributions are tax-deductible; cannot engage in political activities; lobbying limited to 20% of spending.
6. 527 Organization — Can spend unlimited amounts on issue advocacy and voter mobilization; cannot contribute directly to candidates or parties.
7. 501(c)(4) — Can spend unlimited amounts on electioneering; does not have to disclose contributors; at least half of activities must be nonpolitical.
8. PAC (Political Action Committee) — Can contribute directly to candidates and parties; subject to strict limits on direct contributions.
9. Super PAC — Can spend unlimited amounts on electioneering; can support or oppose specific candidates; cannot contribute directly to or coordinate with candidates or parties.

Political Parties

1. Party Organization (DNC/RNC) — The formal structure of political parties; cannot force members to follow its agenda.
2. Party in Government — The elected officials who identify with a party and vote along party lines.
3. Party in the Electorate — Voters who identify with a party; parties try to influence them through policy agendas, agenda setting, and policy platforms.
4. Party System — A period of stable competition between parties around a consistent set of issues; parties realign when key issues divide the coalition.
5. First Party System (1789–1828) — Federalists vs. Democratic-Republicans; key issues: capital location and national bank.
6. Second Party System (1829–1856) — Democrats (dominant) vs. Whigs; key issues: tariffs and slavery.
7. Third Party System (1857–1896) — Democrats vs. Republicans (dominant); key issues: slavery, Reconstruction, industrialization.
8. Fourth Party System (1897–1932) — Democrats vs. Republicans (dominant); key issues: industrialization and immigration.
9. Fifth Party System (1933–1968) — Democrats (dominant) vs. Republicans; key issue: size and scope of the federal government.
10. Sixth Party System (1969–present) — Democrats vs. Republicans (neither dominant); key issues: size of government, civil rights, social issues, foreign policy.