Gen Psy Exam 3 - Thinking, Language, and Intelligence - (5 of 7)

What is the representativeness heuristic?

What are base rates? What is the base-rate fallacy?

Representativeness heuristic - we judge how likely something is by how similar it is to a typical example of a category

Example: assuming someone who loves reading is more likely to be a librarian than a salesperson, even is salespeople are far more common

Base-rate fallacy: using representativeness makes us ignore base rates (actual frequencies in the population)

Base rates = how common something really is

What is the availability heuristic?

we judge how likely something is based on how easily examples come to mind

- if something is vivid, or emotional, it feels more common

- we are influenced by salience/particularly noticeable, not actual probability

Example: thinking place crashes are common because they're on the news, even though they're rare

What is the simulation heuristic (counterfactual thinking)?

we imagine alternative versions of events (what if's) and this shapes our emotional reactions

Example: a person who misses a flight by 2 minutes feels worse than someone who misses it by 2 hours, because its easier to imagine a different outcome

What are the outcomes of bilingualism?

- greater cognitive flexibility

- protection against cognitive decline

- higher academic achievement in upper grades

- better executive control

- additional area of brain activation

What is the perseverance effect (belief perseverance)?

What is confirmation bias?

Perseverance effect (belief perseverance) - people's beliefs stick around even when they are shown clear evidence that the belief is wrong. They keep believing it anyway.

Confirmation bias - we look for and use information that supports what we already believe, and we ignore or discount information that contradicts our beliefs.

What are the effects of stimulating and non-stimulating environments on intellectual abilities?

stimulating environment - A healthy, stimulating environment → better brain growth + higher intellectual ability.

non-stimulating environment - A deprived environment → reduced intellectual growth.

What is stereotype threat?

How can stereotype threat be combatted?

Stereotype Threat (Steele & Aronson, 1995) - occurs when a negative stereotype about a group becomes salient (noticeable). The person fears confirming the stereotype, which creates anxiety.

This anxiety impairs performance, making it harder to behave in a counter‑stereotypic way.

Example: If a student is reminded of a stereotype about their group's math ability, their performance may drop — not because of ability, but because of threat.

Stereotype threat can be combatted by

- education about stereotype threat

- role models

- self-affirmation

- growth mindset

What are fixed and growth mindsets? Which results in more effect and persistence?

Fixed mindset - believes ability is unchangeable, performance reflects innate ability, mistakes = signs of a lack of ability, and leads to avoiding challenges

Example: "I am either good at this, or I am not."

Growth mindset - believes ability can improve with effort,

performance reflects effort, strategies, and learning, and

mistakes = opportunities to grow, and lead to persistence and resilience

Example: "I can get better with practice."

Growth mindset results in more effect and persistence