feminist exam

What is the difference between Allan Johnson’s Individual Model of Oppression and Systemic Model of Oppression, and how does this apply to patriarchy?

• Individual Model: Oppression is caused by prejudiced or discriminatory individuals.

• Systemic Model: Oppression is produced by social systems and institutions that distribute power unequally.

• Johnson’s Argument: Patriarchy is not simply the result of individual men being sexist; it is a social system that shapes people's behaviour and maintains gender inequality.

How does Allan Johnson define patriarchy, and what are its main characteristics?

Patriarchy is a social system organized around male dominance and privilege rather than simply individual acts of sexism.

Characteristics of patriarchy:

• Male-centered — men's experiences and perspectives are treated as the norm.

• Male-identified — qualities associated with men are valued more highly.

• Male-dominated — positions of power are disproportionately held by men.

Key Idea:
Men receive advantages from the patriarchal system even if they do not consciously choose or support it. The system itself helps maintain unequal power relations.

Path of Least Resistance

The path of least resistance refers to the socially accepted behaviours that allow people to move through society with the least conflict.

People tend to follow these paths because it is easier and safer than challenging social norms.

What does Allan Johnson mean by the “path of least resistance,” and how does it help maintain patriarchy?

The path of least resistance refers to the socially accepted behaviours that people follow because they are easier and often rewarded by society.

Examples:

• Men interrupting women more frequently.

• Women being expected to perform emotional labour.

• Assuming heterosexuality is the norm.

Key Idea:
People often reproduce oppressive systems without intending to. By following socially rewarded behaviours, they help reinforce and maintain patriarchy and other forms of inequality.

Emma DeGraffenreid and General Motors

Emma DeGraffenreid was a Black woman who sued General Motors for discrimination.

GM hired white women for office jobs and Black men for factory jobs, but Black women were excluded from both.

The court failed to recognize that she experienced discrimination as both Black and female simultaneously.

Her case helped illustrate intersectionality.

What is Kimberlé Crenshaw’s concept of intersectionality, and what are its three main tenets?

Intersectionality is the idea that systems of oppression overlap and interact. A person's experiences cannot be fully understood by looking at race, gender, class, sexuality, or other identities separately.

Three Tenets of Intersectionality:

1. Multiple identities intersect — people have several social identities that shape their experiences.

2. Systems of power interact — racism, sexism, classism, and other forms of oppression work together.

3. Experiences of oppression differ by social location — people's experiences vary depending on their combination of identities and position in society.

Key Idea:
Intersectionality shows that oppression is complex and cannot be understood through a single category of identity.

What is hegemonic masculinity, and what are its main characteristics according to Connell, Anderson, and Reeser?

Hegemonic masculinity is the culturally dominant and idealized form of masculinity that society views as the standard for being a "real man."

Characteristics (Reeser):

• Strength

• Heterosexuality

• Emotional control

• Dominance

• Independence

• Competitiveness

Key Idea:
Very few men fully achieve hegemonic masculinity, but many are judged against this ideal and may feel pressure to conform to it.

What are the three examples of gendered science identified by Emily Martin, and what do they reveal?

Emily Martin argues that scientific descriptions of reproduction often reflect cultural gender stereotypes rather than objective science.

Example 1: The Egg

• Described as passive

• Waiting to be fertilized

• Dependent on the sperm

Example 2: The Sperm

• Described as active

• Aggressive

• Heroic in its journey to the egg

Example 3: Menstruation

• Often described as a failure or waste when pregnancy does not occur

Key Idea:
These descriptions mirror traditional cultural ideas about women as passive and men as active and dominant, showing how gender stereotypes can shape scientific language and knowledge.

What are the implications of gendered scientific language according to Emily Martin?

Gendered scientific language can make stereotypes appear objective and natural because they are presented as scientific facts.

Implications:

• Gender stereotypes gain legitimacy through science.

• Men are portrayed as naturally active, aggressive, and dominant.

• Women are portrayed as naturally passive and dependent.

• Scientific descriptions may reinforce sexism instead of simply describing reality.

Key Idea:
Science is not always neutral; the language used by scientists can reflect and reproduce existing social beliefs about gender.

What is the Misogyny Paradox according to Anderson and Ward?\

The Misogyny Paradox refers to the contradiction in which many young men claim to support gender equality while simultaneously expressing sexist or hostile attitudes toward women.

Key Idea:
Although these men may endorse equality in principle, their beliefs, language, or behaviours can still reinforce misogyny and gender inequality. This shows that supporting gender equality does not automatically eliminate sexist attitudes.

What is an incel, and what beliefs are commonly found in incel communities?

Incel stands for "involuntary celibate" and refers to someone who believes they are unable to obtain romantic or sexual relationships despite wanting them.

Common beliefs in incel communities:

• Blaming women for their lack of relationships.

• Feeling excluded from ideals of hegemonic masculinity.

• Viewing feminism as responsible for changes in gender relations.

• Believing society unfairly disadvantages them in dating and relationships.

Key Idea:
Many incels see themselves as marginalized by social expectations of masculinity and often direct their frustration toward women and feminism.

What are the four main arguments used against trans and gender non-conforming people, according to Alok Vaid-Menon?

Vaid-Menon identifies four common arguments used to oppose trans and gender non-conforming people:

1. Biology

   • Claims that only two biological sexes exist.

   • Example: "Chromosomes determine gender."

2. Religion

   • Claims that God created only men and women.

   • Example: Religious objections to trans rights.

3. Tradition

   • Argues that society has always operated with only two genders.

   • Example: Opposition to gender-neutral bathrooms.

4. Safety/Fear

   • Portrays trans people as threats to others.

   • Example: "Bathroom panic" arguments.

Key Idea:
Vaid-Menon argues that these arguments are often used to justify exclusion and discrimination against trans and gender non-conforming people.

What are the four common arguments used to claim that trans women are not “real women,” according to Julia Serano?

Serano identifies several arguments often used to invalidate trans women:

1. Biology determines womanhood

   • Claims that only people assigned female at birth are “real women.”

2. Socialization determines womanhood

   • Argues that being raised as a girl is what makes someone a woman.

3. Femininity is artificial

   • Suggests that femininity is fake or performative, and therefore trans women are “inauthentic.”

4. Trans women threaten women’s spaces

   • Claims trans women endanger or undermine cis women’s safety and rights.

Key Idea:
Serano argues these claims are used to police gender boundaries and exclude trans women from being recognized as women, rather than reflecting objective truths about gender.

What are Julia Serano’s four rebuttals to arguments that trans women are not “real women”?

Serano challenges exclusionary claims about womanhood with the following rebuttals:

1. Biology is complex

   • There is no single biological trait that defines all women.

2. Women have diverse experiences

   • Womanhood is not a uniform or universal experience.

3. Femininity is not inherently fake

   • Femininity is a valid expression of gender, not something artificial or deceptive.

4. Trans women are not threats

   • Claims that trans women endanger others are unfounded and based on fear rather than evidence.

Key Idea:
Womanhood cannot be reduced to one characteristic like biology, socialization, or appearance; it is diverse and cannot be used to exclude trans women.

What is the difference between gender identity, gender expression, and biological sex, and how do they relate to each other?

• Gender Identity: A person’s internal sense of self (e.g., man, woman, non-binary).

• Gender Expression: How a person presents themselves outwardly (clothing, behaviour, appearance).

• Biological Sex: Physical characteristics such as chromosomes, hormones, and anatomy.

Key Idea:
These three categories do not always align. A person’s gender identity, expression, and biological sex can be different from one another.

What is compulsory heterosexuality according to Mimi Schippers?

Compulsory heterosexuality is the assumption that heterosexuality is natural, normal, and expected for everyone.

Key Idea:
Society pressures individuals to enter heterosexual relationships and treats them as the default, reinforcing heteronormative expectations and limiting recognition of other sexual identities.

What is compulsory heterosexuality according to Mimi Schippers?

Compulsory heterosexuality is the assumption that heterosexuality is natural, normal, and expected for everyone.

Key Idea:
Society pressures individuals to enter heterosexual relationships and treats them as the default, reinforcing heteronormative expectations and limiting recognition of other sexual identities.

How is heterosexuality imposed and maintained according to Rich?

Rich argues that heterosexuality is not simply a natural or neutral choice, but is enforced through social structures.

Ways it is maintained:

• Social pressure

• Religion

• Family expectations

• Violence

• Economic dependence

Key Idea:
Heterosexuality is reinforced as the norm through multiple forms of coercion and expectation, rather than being purely voluntary or natural.

What is the difference between “choice discourse” and “born this way” discourse in explaining sexual orientation?

• Choice discourse: Sexuality is seen as something a person chooses.

• Born This Way discourse: Sexuality is understood as innate and biological.

• Key Idea: Both attempt to explain sexual orientation in different ways.

According to Schuklenk et al., why can searching for the origins of sexuality be considered homophobic?

• It assumes heterosexuality is the default and does not need explanation.

• Only homosexuality is treated as something that must be explained or justified.

• Key Idea: This reinforces heterosexuality as the norm.

What is the naturalistic fallacy, and how does it relate to arguments about sexuality?

• The naturalistic fallacy is the belief that something is morally right because it is natural.

• Example: “Heterosexuality is natural, therefore it is better.”

• Key Idea: Morality cannot be determined by biology or what is considered “natural.”

What are Schuklenk et al.’s three responses to pro-gay genetic arguments?

• Rights should not depend on biology.

• Genetic explanations can be misused.

• Equality should not require scientific proof.

What are the two categories that create disability?

• Straightforward conditions: Physical barriers (e.g., no wheelchair ramp).

• Subtle cultural factors: Social attitudes and expectations (e.g., assuming disabled people are incapable).

What is Eli Clare’s “ideology of cure”?

The belief that disability must be fixed, cured, or eliminated rather than accepted as part of human diversity.

What are the three tenets of the ideology of cure?

• Disability is a problem.

• Cure is desirable.

• Normality is superior.

Why is the ideology of cure considered violent according to disability studies?

• It devalues disabled lives.

• It focuses on eliminating disability instead of removing social barriers.

What does Susan Wendell mean by the “pace of life”?

Society is structured around able-bodied norms of productivity and speed.

Examples:

• Long work hours

• Fast-paced expectations

Key Idea:
These expectations disadvantage disabled people and exclude different bodily realities.

What is “fairness rhetoric” in sport, and how does Orr critique it?

Critics argue trans and intersex athletes have unfair advantages, but Orr argues that fairness is selectively applied and often hides discrimination. Many natural physical advantages are accepted in sports, showing inconsistency in how “fairness” is defined.

What is the purpose of sex testing in sports?

Sex testing is used to determine who qualifies as female for competition and has historically been used to police and regulate women’s bodies.

Who is most targeted by sex testing in sports?

Primarily women, especially intersex women, women of colour, and athletes with atypical bodies. Men are rarely tested because masculinity is treated as the default and less suspicious.

How does sex testing reinforce systems of domination?

It reinforces sexism, racism, colonialism, and ableism by treating certain bodies as abnormal and needing regulation.

What are protectionist discourses in sport?

There are arguments claiming women need protection from supposedly unfair competitors, often used to justify excluding trans and intersex athletes.

What is white supremacist culture according to Tema Okun?

A cultural system that treats white values, norms, and ways of thinking as universal and normal, often operating invisibly.

What are Andrea Smith’s three pillars of white supremacy?

• Slavery / Capitalism: Black people are seen as exploitable (e.g., chattel slavery).

• Genocide / Colonialism: Indigenous peoples are erased to justify land theft (e.g., residential schools).

• Orientalism / War: Certain groups are framed as threats (e.g., Islamophobia).

What are the characteristics of white supremacy culture?

• Sense of urgency (everything must be immediate)

• Perfectionism (mistakes seen as failures)

• Right to comfort (discomfort seen as oppression)

• Either/or thinking (issues reduced to binaries)
  These reinforce dominant power structures.

What is a land acknowledgment?

A statement recognizing the Indigenous peoples whose lands are being occupied is often used in public or institutional settings.

What are the purposes of land acknowledgments according to Vowel?

• Recognize Indigenous presence

• Educate about colonialism

• Encourage responsibility and action

What criticisms does Vowel make of land acknowledgments?

Many become symbolic gestures without real action. Institutions gain moral credit while avoiding deeper accountability for colonial harm.

How is poetry used as resistance according to Abu Toha?

Poetry preserves memory, documents suffering, humanizes oppressed individuals, challenges dominant narratives, and serves as a form of survival and resistance.

What does Belcourt mean by a “state of emergency” in relation to Indigenous peoples?

The “state of emergency” refers to ongoing colonial violence affecting Indigenous peoples, including suicide crises, intergenerational trauma, and the crisis of missing and murdered Indigenous women and girls.

What is Belcourt’s argument about suicide prevention?

Belcourt argues that suicide prevention must address structural injustice (such as colonialism and racism), not only focus on individual mental health.

How does Belcourt explain suicide as a political response to injustice?

Suicide can result from systemic conditions like colonialism, racism, and poverty. It reflects broader social oppression, not just individual mental health struggles.

How is desire political according to Caleb Luna?

Luna argues that desire is shaped by power and social norms. Beauty standards privilege thin, white, masculine, and able-bodied bodies, meaning desirability reflects broader systems of inequality.

What is Belcourt’s argument about suicide prevention?

Belcourt argues that suicide prevention must address structural injustice (such as colonialism and racism), not only focus on individual mental health.