Comprehensive Psychology & Development Theories for Students

Nature vs nurture

Nature = genetics you are born with; Nurture = environment and experiences that shape you

Continuous vs discontinuous development

Continuous = slow, gradual change over time; Discontinuous = development happens in stages

Critical vs sensitive periods

Critical period = must happen at a certain time or development is permanently affected; Sensitive period = best time to learn something, but still possible later

Longitudinal study

Follows the same people over a long period of time

Cross-sectional study

Compares different age groups at one point in time

Sequential study

Combines longitudinal + cross-sectional (multiple groups over time)

Correlation ≠ causation

Correlation = two things are related; Does NOT mean one causes the other

Independent variable

What the researcher changes

Dependent variable

What is measured (result)

Freud (psychodynamic)

Behavior is driven by unconscious thoughts and childhood experiences

Skinner / Watson (behavioral)

Behavior is learned through rewards and punishment

Piaget (cognitive)

Children learn in stages by thinking and exploring

Maslow / Rogers (humanistic)

Focus on personal growth and reaching full potential

Vygotsky (contextual/social)

Learning happens through social interaction and culture

Monozygotic twins

Identical twins (one egg splits)

Dizygotic twins

Fraternal twins (two eggs, two sperm)

Genotype

Genetic makeup (genes you have)

Phenotype

Physical traits you see (appearance)

Dominant gene

Strong gene that shows even if only one copy is present

Recessive gene

Only shows if you get two copies

Prenatal stages

Germinal stage = First 2 weeks (fertilization + implantation); Embryonic stage = Weeks 3-8 (major organs form, most dangerous stage); Fetal stage = Week 9-birth (growth and development)

Teratogens

Harmful substances (drugs, alcohol, infections)

Fetal alcohol syndrome

Birth defects caused by alcohol use during pregnancy

Amniocentesis

Test that checks baby's health using amniotic fluid

CVS (chorionic villus sampling)

Test that checks genetic problems early in pregnancy

Cephalocaudal principle

Growth happens head → down to toes

Proximodistal principle

Growth happens center of body → outward

Myelination

Nerve cells get coated so signals travel faster

Synaptic pruning

Brain removes unused connections to become more efficient

SIDS/SUID prevention

Safe sleep practices to prevent sudden infant death

Reflexes

Automatic movements babies are born with

Gross motor skills

Large movements (walking, jumping)

Fine motor skills

Small movements (writing, picking up objects)

Breastfeeding benefits

Provides nutrients, immunity, and bonding

Piaget stages

Sensorimotor (0-2) = Learn through senses and actions; Preoperational (2-7) = Use language, imagination, but thinking is self-centered; Concrete operational (7-11) = Logical thinking about real things; Formal operational (12+) = Abstract thinking (ideas, theories)

Key concepts

Schemas = Mental "folders" for organizing information; Assimilation = Putting new info into existing schema; Accommodation = Changing schema to fit new info; Object permanence = Knowing something exists even if you can't see it; Deferred imitation = Copying behavior after some time has passed

Language

Babbling = Baby sounds ("ba ba"); Holophrases = One word = full sentence meaning ("milk!" = I want milk); Overextension = One word used too broadly ("dog" for all animals); Underextension = Word used too narrowly (only YOUR dog is "dog")

Stages of labor

1: dilation; 2: birth of baby; 3: delivery of placenta

Apgar scale

Test newborn health (heart rate, breathing, color, etc.)

Preterm baby

Born early

Postmature baby

Born late

Postpartum depression

Depression after giving birth

Cesarean delivery (C-section)

Baby delivered through surgery

Infant mortality risk factors

Prematurity, poor prenatal care, low birth weight, unsafe environment

Bowlby

Attachment is biologically based and important for survival

Harlow

Comfort matters more than food in attachment

Ainsworth Strange Situation

Test of infant attachment style

Attachment styles

Secure = Comfortable with caregiver, upset when gone, happy when returned; Avoidant = Ignores caregiver, avoids closeness; Resistant/Ambivalent = Very clingy, upset even when caregiver returns; Disorganized = Confused or inconsistent behavior

Stranger anxiety

Fear of unfamiliar people

Separation anxiety

Distress when caregiver leaves

Temperament

Baby's natural personality

Goodness-of-fit

How well parenting matches child's temperament

Trust vs mistrust (Erikson)

First stage: baby learns if world is safe or not

Autonomy vs shame/doubt

Toddler stage: independence vs doubt

Parenting styles

Authoritarian = Strict, no warmth; Authoritative = Strict but warm (best outcome); Permissive = Very lenient, few rules; Uninvolved = Little attention or care

Types of play

Parallel play = Play next to others, not with them; Associative play = Interacting but no real structure; Cooperative play = Organized group play

Initiative vs guilt

Preschool stage: trying new things vs feeling guilty

Resilience

Ability to bounce back from problems

Aggression

Harmful behavior

Violent media effects

Can increase aggressive behavior in some children

Reversibility

Understanding actions can be undone

Decentering

Thinking about multiple parts of a situation

ADHD

Difficulty with attention and hyperactivity

Learning disabilities

Difficulty in specific learning areas

Zone of proximal development (ZPD)

What a child can do with help

Scaffolding

Support given to help learning

IQ controversies

Debate about fairness and accuracy of IQ tests

Industry vs inferiority

School age: success vs feeling failure

Self-esteem

How you feel about yourself

Bullying types

Verbal = Name calling; Physical = Hitting, pushing; Relational = Social exclusion; Cyberbullying = Online harassment

Kohlberg

Moral development stages (right vs wrong thinking)

Gilligan

Focus on care and relationships in moral decisions

Popularity & friendships

Social status and peer relationships affect development

Most Important Names

Freud - unconscious mind & childhood; Erikson - psychosocial stages; Piaget - cognitive stages; Vygotsky - social learning; Skinner - reinforcement learning; Watson - behaviorism; Bowlby - attachment theory; Ainsworth - attachment styles test; Harlow - comfort attachment study; Kohlberg - moral reasoning; Gilligan - ethics of care; Maslow - hierarchy of needs; Rogers - self-growth & human potential