final human memory

What is the scientific definition of learning?

A relatively permanent change in behavior that results from experience.

What are the three fundamental stages of memory?

Encoding, storage, and retrieval.

How does undivided attention affect the encoding of information into long-term memory?

Optimal encoding for long-term memory requires undivided attention; secondary tasks decrease the number of items recalled.

What is the 'primacy effect' in memory recall?

The tendency to better recall items presented at the beginning of a list.

What is the 'recency effect' in memory recall?

The tendency to recall items presented at the end of a list immediately after they are presented.

What does 'meaning-based processing' imply for memory success?

Memory performance improves when information is processed at the level of its meaning (deep processing) rather than just its visual or auditory features.

What did Ebbinghaus discover regarding the timing of learning?

Distributed learning (spacing out information) is more effective for memory than massed learning (cramming).

What is 'proactive interference'?

When old memories make it difficult to remember or encode new information.

What is 'release from proactive interference'?

A phenomenon where memory performance improves when the category of to-be-learned items is changed, reducing the interference from previous lists.

What is the 'testing effect' in memory research?

The finding that taking tests on material improves long-term recall more effectively than simply re-reading the material.

What is the 'method of loci'?

A mnemonic device attributed to Simonides that involves associating items to be remembered with specific physical locations.

How did Plato view memory?

As a rationalist, he believed memory involves active processes like encoding (painting), storage (wax tablets), and retrieval (an aviary).

What were Aristotle's three laws of association?

Similarity, contrast, and contiguity.

What is 'psychophysics'?

The measurement of the relationship between physical properties of stimuli and the resulting psychological sensations.

What was Franz Joseph Gall's contribution to brain science?

He proposed that specific brain regions have particular functions, anticipating the modern view of localization.

What was Pierre Flourens' view on brain function?

He argued that the brain acts as a single, undifferentiated organ rather than having localized functions.

What distinction did William James make regarding memory systems?

He distinguished between primary memory (short-term/working memory) and secondary memory (long-term memory).

What was Ebbinghaus's criterion for successful learning?

Errorless recitation of a list.

What is the 'forgetting curve' as described by Ebbinghaus?

A rapid, nonlinear rate of forgetting that slows down over time.

What is a 'saving score' in memory research?

The reduction in time or effort required to relearn a previously mastered list compared to learning it for the first time.

How does 'overlearning' affect memory?

Studying beyond the point of initial mastery helps to slow down the rate of forgetting.

What is an 'engram'?

A physical memory trace or representation of an experience in the brain.

What is trace decay?

The theory that stored information fades or degrades over time.

Why did Ebbinghaus use nonsense syllables in his experiments?

To minimize the influence of prior knowledge and study memory in its 'pure' form.

What is the difference between intentional and incidental learning?

Intentional learning involves active preparation for future recall demands, whereas incidental learning occurs without that specific anticipation.

What is the primary legacy of Ebbinghaus in psychology?

He pioneered the systematic, controlled scientific study of memory using precise stimulus materials.

What was the primary focus of behaviorism regarding the study of the mind?

Behaviorism focused on observable behavioral responses to stimuli, rejecting the study of internal mental thoughts because they could not be directly observed.

Who are some of the most famous behaviorists mentioned in the study of psychology?

Watson, Pavlov (classical conditioning), E.L. Thorndike, and B.F. Skinner (operant conditioning).

What contribution did Mary Calkins make to the study of learning in 1894?

She formalized the systematic study of associative learning and developed the paired-associate learning procedure.

What is the 'recency effect' as discovered by Mary Calkins?

The tendency to better remember the last items in a list or sequence.

How did E.C. Tolman challenge the behaviorist view of reinforcement?

He argued that learning is driven by curiosity and the seeking of knowledge, proposing that animals possess cognition that guides their behavior.

According to Frederic Bartlett, what is the nature of memory?

Memory is a constructive process critically shaped by meaning rather than a mere association of items.

What is a 'schema' in the context of memory?

A schema is an active organization of past experiences and behaviors that captures patterns common across experiences, helping to organize and interpret new information.

What triggered the 'cognitive revolution' in the 1960s?

A reaction against behaviorism, as simple behavioral responses failed to capture the richness of memory and mental processes, influenced by the rise of computer technology.

What is the 'modal model' of memory proposed by Atkinson and Shifrin?

A model that views memory as a unitary process and serves as a useful heuristic for understanding information processing.

What distinction did Endel Tulving argue for regarding long-term memory?

He argued for a distinction between different kinds of long-term memory based on consciousness and content.

What is the central question of cognitive neuroscience?

How does the brain allow humans to learn and remember?

What are the levels of analysis in cognitive neuroscience?

The levels range from molecules and single neurons to systems neuroscience, which examines brain regions and networks.

What were the primary findings from the study of patient HM?

HM showed that memory is not a unitary process, as he could acquire new skills despite the removal of his hippocampus and temporal lobes.

What is the function of the hippocampus according to O'Keefe's research?

The hippocampus contains 'place cells' that act as a cognitive map, providing an objective spatial system for navigation and memory.

Define 'learning' in the context of cognitive psychology.

Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior or internal state that results from experience.

What is the principle of 'equipotentiality' proposed by Karl Lashley?

The idea that all parts of the brain contribute equally to memory storage, as he found that maze performance in rats depended on the size of the lesion rather than the location.

What is the difference between explicit and implicit memory?

Explicit memory involves conscious recollection of facts and events, while implicit memory influences behavior without conscious awareness.

What did the star-tracing test demonstrate about patient HM?

It demonstrated that HM had intact procedural memory, as his performance improved over time despite having no conscious memory of practicing the task.

What is 'priming' in the context of implicit memory?

A phenomenon where prior exposure to a stimulus shapes the response to a later stimulus, such as recognizing a word faster if it was seen earlier.

What are the three major stages of long-term memory identified through HM's case?

Encoding, consolidation/storage, and retrieval.

What is 'statistical pattern learning'?

The ability to pick up regularities in the environment without conscious awareness, such as learning language rhythms or sensing patterns in music.

What is declarative memory?

A type of long-term memory that involves conscious recollection of facts and events that can be verbalized.

What is nondeclarative (procedural) memory?

Long-term memory expressed through performance and skills, such as riding a bike or typing, without conscious awareness.

How does 'cued recall' differ from 'free recall'?

Free recall requires retrieving information without hints, while cued recall uses prompts or fragments to assist in retrieval.

Why is the study of amnesic patients important for understanding memory?

It provides evidence for multiple memory systems, showing that some forms of memory (like implicit memory) can remain intact even when explicit memory is severely impaired.

What is statistical pattern learning?

The process of picking up regularities in the environment without conscious awareness.

What is the primary focus of behaviorism according to John B. Watson?

The study of observable behavior and actions rather than the mind, establishing relations between stimuli and responses.

What is classical conditioning?

A learning process, famously demonstrated by Ivan Pavlov, where a neutral stimulus is conditioned to predict a response.

What is the 'Law of Effect' in operant conditioning?

The principle that the consequence of a response determines whether it is strengthened (reward) or weakened (punishment).

In operant conditioning, what is the difference between positive and negative reinforcement?

Positive reinforcement adds something good to increase behavior, while negative reinforcement removes something bad to increase behavior.

How does punishment differ from reinforcement in operant conditioning?

Reinforcement increases the frequency of a behavior, whereas punishment decreases the frequency of a behavior.

What is latent learning?

Learning that is not apparent in behavior at the time it occurs but manifests later when suitable motivation or circumstances arise.

What is a cognitive map?

An internal representation or mental image of an external environment, feature, or landmark.

What is the primary difference between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation?

Intrinsic motivation is the internal desire to explore skills and learn for personal satisfaction, while extrinsic motivation is driven by external rewards.

What is the Modal Model of memory?

A model proposed by Atkinson and Shiffrin that views memory as a non-unitary process involving multiple stages of information processing.

What are the three components of working memory?

The phonological loop, the visuospatial sketchpad, and the episodic buffer.

What is the distinction between implicit and explicit memory?

Implicit memory encodes information not easily recalled consciously, while explicit memory can be consciously recalled.

What is the difference between semantic and episodic memory?

Semantic memory is knowledge about the world, while episodic memory is memory for specific personal events experienced by an individual.

Which brain structures are associated with the medial temporal lobes?

The hippocampus, entorhinal cortex, perirhinal cortex, and para-hippocampal cortex.

What are the primary components of a neuron?

Dendrites (input), cell body (integration), axon (conduction), and axon terminals (output).

How is information transmitted within a neuron versus between neurons?

Information flows within a neuron via electrical signals (action potentials) and between neurons via chemical signals (neurotransmitters).

What is an action potential?

A rapid change in electrical charge across a neuron's membrane, moving from approximately -70mV to +50mV, triggered by ion movement.

What is synaptic plasticity?

A change in the structure or biochemistry of a synapse that occurs during learning.

What is Hebb's Rule?

The principle that if two connected neurons are active at the same time, the synapse between them is strengthened; often summarized as 'neurons that fire together, wire together'.

What is the role of the axon hillock?

It acts as the integration zone that determines whether the neuron will send an electrical signal based on incoming information.

What is the typical duration of short-term memory without rehearsal?

Approximately 15 to 30 seconds.

What did the case of Patient KC demonstrate regarding memory?

It showed that semantic memory can remain intact even when episodic memory is impaired, suggesting distinct memory systems.

What is the primary function of dendrites?

To serve as the input zone, receiving information from the neuron's environment or other neurons.

What is neural consolidation?

The process of transferring information from short-term storage to long-term storage, often facilitated by experience-dependent plasticity.

What are the two main categories of long-term memory?

Declarative (explicit) memory and nondeclarative (implicit) memory.

What is an operant response?

An action that operates on the environment to produce a specific consequence.

What is Hebb's Rule regarding synaptic strengthening?

If two connected neurons are both active at the same time, the synapse between them will be strengthened.

What is the core concept of 'neurons that fire together, wire together'?

Experience-dependent plasticity, where the co-occurrence of neural activity serves as a mechanism for memory consolidation.

What is Long-Term Potentiation (LTP)?

A long-lasting strengthening of synaptic connections due to high-frequency activity, resulting in a stable and enduring stronger response.

Who first demonstrated Long-Term Potentiation (LTP) in 1973?

Bliss and Lomo.

What are the three primary hippocampal pathways where LTP is observed?

The perforant path (entorhinal cortex to dentate gyrus), the mossy fiber pathway (dentate gyrus to CA3), and the Schaffer collateral pathway (CA3 to CA1).

What is the difference between episodic and semantic memory?

Episodic memory involves personal experiences (e.g., a memory of an apple), while semantic memory involves general facts (e.g., facts about an apple).

Which brain regions constitute the Medial Temporal Lobe (MTL)?

The hippocampus, entorhinal cortex, perirhinal cortex, parahippocampal cortex, and the amygdala.

What is unique about the hippocampus and olfactory bulb in adult humans?

They are the only brain regions where neurogenesis (the birth of new neurons) occurs.

What is the function of the amygdala within the limbic system?

It is involved in emotional aspects of memory, such as fear conditioning and emotional learning, and is highly connected to the hippocampus.

What is the primary role of the hypothalamus?

It is associated with basic instincts and drives, such as hunger, thirst, the fight-or-flight response, and hormone regulation.

What is the function of the thalamus regarding sensory input?

It acts as a relay station; all sensory input except olfaction routes through the thalamus before connecting to other brain regions.

What is the Papez circuit?

A neural circuit involving the hippocampus and other regions (including the amygdala and prefrontal cortex) that is involved in memory formation and emotional responses.

Which brain structure is primarily involved in procedural memory?

The basal ganglia (striatum and globus pallidus).

What cognitive process is supported by the occipitotemporal junction?

Priming, where past experiences increase the response to a given sensory stimulus.

Which brain region is essential for working memory (WM)?

The prefrontal cortex (PFC).

Which brain region is essential for long-term associative memory?

The medial temporal lobe (MTL).

What is the difference between intentional and incidental encoding?

Intentional encoding occurs when memory is anticipated, while incidental encoding occurs during surprise memory tasks.

What is the 'concreteness effect' in memory?

The finding that concrete words are remembered better than abstract words.

What is the 'picture superiority effect'?

The finding that pictures are remembered better than words.

What is the Pollyanna principle in memory?

A positivity bias where positive emotional stimuli are remembered better than negative or neutral stimuli.

What does an N-back task measure?

Working memory capacity and control processes, specifically the ability to monitor and update information in a sequence.

What is the purpose of randomization in experimental research?

To ensure participants are equally likely to be assigned to any condition, reducing bias.

What is the difference between an independent variable (IV) and a dependent variable (DV)?

The IV is the variable manipulated by the researcher, while the DV is the outcome measured to assess the effect of the manipulation.