BIOS256 Exam 2 Practice Flashcards

150 detailed vocabulary flashcards covering nutrition, metabolism, thermoregulation, diabetes, liver pathology, and the urinary system based on Dr. Nathan Shiffer's BIOS256 Exam 2 review notes.

Nutrients

Any chemical/macromolecule ingested and absorbed for the repair, growth, and maintenance of cells and tissues.

Macronutrients

Nutrients needed in large amounts, including carbohydrates, proteins, fats, and water.

Micronutrients

Nutrients needed in small amounts, specifically vitamins and minerals, important for enzyme function.

Essential Nutrients

Nutrients that must be consumed because the body cannot synthesize them, including all minerals and 8 amino acids.

Non-Essential Nutrients

Nutrients the body can synthesize internally if they are not consumed in the diet.

Absorptive State

The 'Feast Mode' immediately after eating when nutrients are plentiful and insulin predominates.

Post-Absorptive State

The 'Famine Mode' between meals or during fasting when nutrients are scarce and glucagon predominates.

Insulin

The predominant hormone during the absorptive state that promotes the storage of excess nutrients as polymers.

Glucagon

The predominant hormone during the post-absorptive state that promotes the breakdown of stored polymers into monomers.

Vitamins

Essential organic nutrients, often called coenzymes, that are sensitive to light, oxygen, heat, and acid.

Provitamins

Organic compounds from which vitamins are synthesized within the body.

Fat-soluble Vitamins

Vitamins A, D, E, and K, which are absorbed with fats and stored in body fat.

Water-soluble Vitamins

Vitamins B and C, which are absorbed with water and flushed out of the body if in excess.

Hypervitaminosis

A condition caused by an excess of vitamins, most commonly associated with fat-soluble vitamins.

Ascorbic Acid

The chemical name for Vitamin C.

Cobalamin

The chemical name for Vitamin B12.

Folate

The chemical name for Vitamin B9.

Pyridoxine

The chemical name for Vitamin B6.

Minerals

Inorganic metals that often function as essential nutrients and enzyme cofactors.

Major Minerals

Minerals needed in amounts greater than $100\,mg/day$.

Trace Minerals

Minerals needed in amounts less than $100\,mg/day$.

Calcium

A major mineral found in dairy and leafy greens, required for bone structure, muscle contraction, and blood clotting.

Phosphorous

A major mineral found in fish and poultry, used for bone structure, nucleic acid synthesis, and phospholipids.

Potassium

A major mineral found in grains and meat that maintains fluid balance and aids in nerve impulses.

Sodium

A major mineral found in table salt that maintains fluid balance, muscle contraction, and nerve impulses.

Chloride

A major mineral found in table salt that maintains pH balance and is a component of gastric acid.

Magnesium

A major mineral found in nuts and chocolate that activates enzymes and aids in nerve transmission.

Iron

A trace mineral found in red meat and eggs that is a component of hemoglobin for oxygen transport.

Fluoride

A trace mineral added to drinking water that strengthens teeth enamel and is a component of bones.

Iodine

A trace mineral found in iodized salt that is required for thyroid hormone synthesis.

Metabolism

The sum of all chemical reactions in the body, including the creating and breaking of chemical bonds.

Thyroxine (T4)

A hormone that regulates the basal metabolic rate.

Anabolic Reactions

Metabolic reactions that consume energy to create bonds and form larger molecules like muscle or glycogen.

Catabolic Reactions

Metabolic reactions that break bonds to form smaller molecules and release energy.

Anaerobic Respiration

Also called fermentation; occurs without oxygen, producing less ATP and reducing glucose to lactic acid in muscles.

Aerobic Respiration

Occurs in the mitochondria using oxygen to reduce glucose into $CO_2$ and $H_2O$ for efficient ATP production.

NAD+

A coenzyme regenerated by fermentation during anaerobic conditions to allow glycolysis to continue.

Lactic Acid Fermentation

The type of anaerobic respiration that occurs in humans, producing lactate and causing muscle cramps.

Alcoholic Fermentation

The type of anaerobic respiration that occurs in yeast, producing alcohol and $CO_2$.

Glycolysis

The metabolic pathway in the cytosol that converts Glucose into 2 Pyruvate, yielding a net of 2 ATP and 2 NADH.

Prep Step

The process in the mitochondrial matrix that converts 2 Pyruvate into 2 Acetyl-CoA and 2 $CO_2$.

Kreb's (Citric Acid) Cycle

A cycle in the mitochondrial matrix that processes 2 Acetyl-CoA to produce 6 NADH, 2 FADH2, 2 ATP, and 4 $CO_2$.

Electron Transport Chain

A process in the inner mitochondrial membrane that uses NADH, FADH2, and $O_2$ to produce 26-28 ATP and $H_2O$.

Glycogenesis

The anabolic process of creating glycogen from glucose for storage in the liver and muscles.

Glycogenolysis

The catabolic process of breaking down stored glycogen into glucose to maintain blood sugar.

Gluconeogenesis

The synthesis of new glucose from non-carbohydrate sources like amino acids, glycerol, or lactate.

Lipolysis

The breakdown of triglycerides into glycerol and fatty acids for energy use.

Beta-oxidation

The metabolic pathway where fatty acids are broken down to form Acetyl-CoA.

Lipogenesis

The metabolic process of storing excess glucose and nutrients as fatty acids in adipose tissue.

Ketones

Acidic compounds produced when Acetyl-CoA cannot be fully used by the Kreb's cycle due to low carbohydrate availability.

Ketoacidosis

A dangerous condition where excess acidic ketones build up in the blood, often due to uncontrolled diabetes or starvation.

Deamination

The process of removing the nitrogen containing amine group from an amino acid before it enters metabolic pathways.

Urea

A toxic, nitrogen-containing byproduct of protein metabolism formed from ammonia and excreted in urine.

Proteolysis

The breakdown of proteins into amino acids for energy production or glucose synthesis.

Epinephrine

A hormone released during exercise that stimulates gluconeogenesis, glycogenolysis, and lipolysis while inhibiting storage.

Cortisol

A hormone released during stress that stimulates gluconeogenesis, glycogenolysis, lipolysis, and proteolysis.

VLDLs

Lipoproteins that transport triglycerides from the liver to peripheral tissues.

LDLs

Lipoproteins that transport cholesterol to peripheral tissues and can contribute to plaque buildup.

HDLs

Lipoproteins that transport excess cholesterol back to the liver for elimination.

TRH

Thyrotropin-releasing hormone from the hypothalamus that stimulates the release of TSH.

TSH

Thyroid-stimulating hormone from the anterior pituitary that stimulates the thyroid gland to release T4.

Shell Temperature

The temperature at the surface of the body.

Core Temperature

The internal temperature of the body.

Antipyretics

Medications used to reduce fever, such as Acetaminophen, Ibuprofen, and Aspirin.

Type 1 Diabetes (T1D)

An autoimmune condition caused by a lack of insulin production due to damaged beta cells in the pancreas.

Type 2 Diabetes (T2D)

A condition characterized by insulin resistance where cells do not recognize insulin despite its production.

Hyperglycemia

Highly elevated levels of blood sugar, a common symptom of diabetes.

Polydipsia

Excessive thirst, a symptom of diabetes.

Polyuria

Excessive urination, a symptom of diabetes.

Fasting Plasma Glucose (FPG)

A diagnostic test for diabetes; a value $\ge 126\,mg/dL$ indicates diabetes.

Hemoglobin A1C

A diagnostic test for diabetes; a value $\ge 6.5\%$ indicates diabetes.

Liver Cirrhosis

Liver damage where healthy hepatocytes are replaced by scar tissue, leading to hardening and impaired function.

Portal Hypertension

Increased pressure in the portal vein system caused by liver cirrhosis, leading to GIT bleeding and ascites.

Jaundice

A yellowing of the skin/eyes associated with liver failure and the buildup of toxins.

Retroperitoneal

The anatomical location of the kidneys, situated behind the peritoneum.

Ureters

Muscular tubes that conduct urine from the kidneys to the bladder using peristalsis and gravity.

Bladder

A storage organ for urine located in the pelvic cavity, composed of smooth muscle and transitional epithelium.

Micturition Reflex

The reflex responsible for the release of urine from the bladder.

Detrusor Muscle

The smooth muscle of the bladder wall that contract involuntarily during urination.

Urethra

The passageway for urine to travel from the bladder to the external environment.

Calcitriol

The active form of Vitamin D produced by the kidneys for calcium regulation.

Erythropoietin (EPO)

A hormone produced by the kidneys that stimulates red blood cell production in response to low oxygen levels.

Renal Capsule

The deepest layer of the kidney that maintains its shape and acts as a barrier against trauma.

Adipose Capsule

A mass of fatty tissue surrounding the kidney for cushioning and protection.

Renal Fascia

The superficial layer of connective tissue that anchors the kidney to the abdominal wall.

Renal Hilum

An indentation in the medial aspect of the kidney for vessels, nerves, and the ureter.

Renal Cortex

The outer region of the kidney containing portions of nephrons and cortical-radiated vessels.

Renal Medulla

The inner region of the kidney subdivided into renal pyramids and renal columns.

Renal Pyramids

Cone-shaped structures in the medulla that contain nephron loops.

Renal Pelvis

A central cavity that collects urine from the calyces before it enters the ureters.

Afferent Arterioles

Blood vessels that carry blood into the glomerulus of the nephron.

Glomerulus

A network of fenestrated capillaries in the renal corpuscle where filtration occurs.

Efferent Arterioles

Blood vessels that carry blood away from the glomerulus.

Peritubular Capillaries

Capillaries that surround the renal tubules in the cortex.

Vasa Recta

Long, hairpin-shaped capillaries that surround the loop of Henle in the medulla, acting as a countercurrent exchanger.

Prostatic Urethra

The region of the male urethra that passes through the prostate gland.

Nephron

The functional unit of the kidney responsible for filtration, reabsorption, and secretion.

Renal Corpuscle

The initial site of filtration in the nephron, consisting of the glomerulus and Bowman’s capsule.

Bowman’s Capsule

Also called the Glomerular Capsule; it collects the filtrate from the glomerulus.

Podocytes

Specialized cells with pedicels that form part of the filtration membrane in the renal corpuscle.