International Relations

Human security is about

protecting people

Traditionally, security meant protecting the ______. Governments mainly cared about _____ and _______

• state

• staying powerful and safe

In the 1980s, Barry Buzan argued that

security shouldn’t just be about countries—it should also be about people.

The General Assembly

• the UN’s primary deliberative body'

• All states are members of the assembly and each state has a vote.

• Issues can be discussed in the assembly as long as they are not under consideration by the Security Council.

• Debates often do not solve problems but instead serve to heighten disagreement.

The Security Council

• primarily responsible for maintaining peace and security.

• The key powers of the council are found in the UN Charter that permits the Security Council a range of powers from investigation and negotiations to sanctions and military intervention

• The council has permanent and rotating members; permanent members include Russia, China, the United States, France, and Britain. Ten states rotate as nonpermanent members. Decisions of the council require unanimous approval of the permanent members.

The Secretariat

• The UN’s executive organ directed by the Secretary General manages the bureaucracy, operations and finances of the UN. T

• he Secretary General is appointed by the General Assembly on the recommendation of the Security Council.

International Court of Justice

• This court is made up of fifteen judges from around the world.

• Few states have actually accepted its jurisdiction and most have decided on a case by case basis whether the ICJ has jurisdiction and to follow its ruling

• The ICJ is at its best when complainant states actually want to settle their disagreement.

The Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC):

• This council handles the economic, social, cultural, educational, health, and related matters.

• The institution accounts for 70 percent of the UN’s budget and oversees a whole series of specialized agencies that help carry out its mission.

• These agencies vary widely from the International Atomic Energy Agency to the Food and Agricultural Organization to the World Health Organization.

The UN had to find alternative ways to maintain peace after what happened in the cold war. These alternative procedures include:

• during times of crises, the Security Council would have an agent act on its behalf. (Korea, invasion of Kuwait 1990)

• the establishment of a traditional peacekeeping force to be placed in between fighting parties during a cease-fire.- weapons only used in self-defense

• in the wake of the Cold War, multidimensional peacekeeping emerged where it was more likely that force would be used to achieve humanitarian goals. This principle has been used most when states collapse, civil wars break out, and international conflicts emerge. Interventions in Somalia and Yugoslavia are examples of this in the post-Cold War period

In 1992, Secretary General Boutrous Boutrous-Ghali outlined a much more ambitious role for the UN when it came to maintaining peace and security in what seemed to be an increasingly hostile world. These included four different types of activities:

1. Preventative Diplomacy

2. Peacemaking

3. Peacekeeping

4. Post Conflict Peace Building

Preventive diplomacy:

Confidence-building measures, fact finding, and preventive deployment of authorized troops

Peacemaking

bringing hostile parties to agreement through peaceful means

Peacekeeping

the deployment of UN presence with the approval of all parties involved

PostConflict Peace building

develops the social, political, economic infrastructure to prevent further violence and to consolidate peace

The expanded role of maintaining peace was the result of the realization that threats to international peace and security were not just byproducts of relations between states, but that threats could also emanate from problems and conflicts ________

Within states

What is the purpose of the United Nations?

• Created after the League of Nations to avoid its failures.

• Main goal (Article 1): maintain international peace and security.

• The Cold War (bipolar world) made this goal difficult.

How does the United Nations maintain peace?

No standing army → relies on alternatives:

1. Security Council-authorized actions (e.g., Korea, Kuwait).

2. Peacekeeping forces (neutral, only self-defense, need host approval).

3. Post–Cold War interventions (more force, humanitarian focus).

What was the main problem with the United Nations?

Sovereignty vs Intervention

• UN needs state permission to intervene.

• This limits action in crises (e.g., genocide in Sudan/Darfur).

• Debate:

  • Should sovereignty be absolute?

  • Or can UN intervene for human rights protection?

What is the key paradox of international law?

• No real enforcements yet states usually follow it

• states voluntarily comply because it serves their interests

Hugo Grotius

States are bound by laws and benefit from following them

Hedley Bull

States follow rules due to shared interest in avoiding chaos/violence.

Sources of international law

• Treaties (conventions)

• Customary law (most important; based on repeated behavior)

• General legal principles

• Judicial decisions & expert opinions

Customary Law

• Main source due to lack of global legislature.

• Develops through repeated state practices and reciprocity.

Geneva Conventions

• Protect wounded soldiers, prisoners, and civilians.

• Basis for laws of war and war crimes.

United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea

• Defines territorial waters (12 nautical miles) and resource rights.

Focus of International Law

• Strong emphasis on war and conduct during war.

• Linked to efforts to maintain international peace.

Immanuel Kant:

Peace depends on:

• International organizations

• Democracy

• Economic interdependence

Hague Conventions

• Limited weapons and methods of war.

• Helped establish early laws of warfare.

League of Nations (Predecessor to UN)

League of Nations:

• First attempt at global peacekeeping.

• Weaknesses:

  • U.S. did not join.

  • Unanimous voting rule made action difficult.

  • Ineffective against powerful states.

PE studies the relationship between

economics and politics globally

Adam Smith

free markets, “invisible hand”

Karl Marx

capitalism = inequality & exploitation

David Ricardo

comparative advantage

John Stuart Mill

balance markets with ethics

Three Main IPE Theories

1. Liberalism

2. Mercantilism

3. Marxism

Liberalism in relation to IPE

Free markets, minimal government, trade benefits all

• Markets should operate with minimal state interference

• Trade is beneficial for all through comparative advantage

• Key ideas:

  • Absolute advantage → produce what you’re best at

  • Comparative advantage → produce what has lowest opportunity cost

• Associated with: Adam Smith

Mercantilism in relation to IPE

State-centered, protectionism, competition

• World = competition between states

• Goal: maximize power, wealth, and self-sufficiency

• Tools:

  • Tariffs (taxes on imports)

  • Protection of domestic industries

• Extreme version: Autarky (no trade)

• Key debate: Tariffs

  • Pros:

    • Protect jobs & industries

    • Generate revenue

  • Cons:

    • Higher prices

    • Trade wars

    • Less innovation

Marxism in relation to IPE

Capitalism creates inequality and exploitation

• Global economy = class struggle

• Capitalism creates:

  • Inequality

  • Exploitation

• Key idea:

  • Core countries exploit peripheral countries

• Trade = tool of domination (not mutual benefit)

Post–World War II Global Economy

Key changes:

• US becomes dominant economic power

• Expansion of global trade

• Lower tariffs

• Rise of international institutions

• Cheap oil fuels growth

Bretton Woods Institutions

Created to stabilize global economy:

• IMF (International Monetary Fund)

  • Loans for countries in crisis

  • Requires austerity policies

• World Bank

  • Development & infrastructure loans

• GATT → WTO

  • Reduce tariffs and promote free trade

Criticism:

• Favor wealthy countries

• Impose harsh economic reforms (SAPs)

• Can increase inequality

Oil Shocks (1973 & 1979)

• Triggered by Middle East conflicts

• Oil embargoes → global recessions

• Showed:

  • US vulnerability

  • Global interdependence

Globalization

Hard to define → think of it as a process with 4 key features:

1. Internationalization → more trade & investment

2. Technology → faster communication, shrinking distance

3. Deterritorialization → borders matter less

4. Liberalization → free markets, privatization

Skepticism of Globalization

Critics argue:

• It’s too vague (“explains everything”)

• States are still powerful

• Most economic activity is still local/regional

• Globalization is ongoing—not complete

International Political Economy (IPE)

Study of interaction between politics and global economics

Absolute Advantage

Produce more efficiently than others

Comparative Advantage

Produce at lower opportunity cost

Tariffs

Taxes on imports

Autarky

No trade/self-sufficiency

IMF

Loans for crises, requires austerity

World Bank

Development loans

GATT/WTO

Reduce trade barriers

Smoot-Hawley Tariff (1930)

Worsened Great Depression

Oil Shock (1973)

Arab embargo → recession

Oil Shock (1979)

ran crisis → global instability

Globalization

Increasing global interconnectedness

Internationalization

More global trade

Deterritorialization

Borders matter less

Liberalization

Free market reforms

Core countries

Wealthy, dominant states

Peripheral countries

Poor, exploited states

Unequal exchange

Uneven trade benefiting rich nations

Interdependence

States rely on each other

tructural Adjustment Programs (SAPs)

IMF/World Bank reforms (austerity, privatization)

Imperialism

Domination of one country over another (politically + economically)

• Driven by Industrialization → need for raw materials, labor, markets

• Result:

  • Colonies reorganized to serve European economies

  • Long-term underdevelopment in colonized regions

New Imperialism

Late 1800s expansion driven by industry

• More intense, economic-focused imperialism

• Key event:

  • Berlin Conference

    • Europe divided Africa without regard to borders or cultures

• Effects:

  • Artificial borders → future conflict

  • Economies built around resource extraction

Development Gap

Inequality between rich and poor countries

Berlin Conference (1884–1885)

Division of Africa by European powers

Indirect Rule

Control through local elites

Deindustrialization

Destruction of local industries (e.g., India)

Extractive Economy

Focus on raw materials

Commodity Dependence

Reliance on one/few exports

Unequal Exchange

Trade that favors wealthy nations

Modernization Theory

Development through Westernization

Walt Rostow

Proposed stages of development

Stages of Growth

Traditional → modern economy

Dependency Theory

Global system exploits poor countries

Andre Gunder Frank

Key thinker

Core Countries

Wealthy, industrialized

Periphery Countries

Poor, resource-dependent

Economic

Underdevelopment, dependency

Political

Weak institutions

Social

Cultural disruption, elite education

Modernization vs Dependency

Internal vs external causes of poverty

Core vs Periphery

Rich exploit poor

Lasting Effects of Imperialism Economic:

Economic:

• Dependence on exporting raw materials

• Lack of industrialization

Political:

• Weak institutions after independence

• Power concentrated in elites

Social:

• Disruption of cultures

• Education systems created small elite class

Development Gap

• Gap between rich (developed) and poor (developing) countries

• Rooted in:

  • Colonial exploitation

  • Unequal global system

Modernization Theory

• Countries develop by following Western path

• Associated with Walt Rostow

Key idea:

• Development = stages (traditional → modern)

Solutions:

• Industrialization

• Education

• Western institutions

Criticism:

• Ignores:

  • Imperialism

  • Global inequality

Dependency Theory

• Associated with Andre Gunder Frank

Core idea:

• Poor countries are poor because of exploitation

System:

• Core (rich countries)

• Periphery (poor countries)

Mechanism:

• Unequal trade:

  • Periphery exports raw materials

  • Core exports expensive goods

Comparing Theories

Modernization	Dependency
Internal causes of poverty	External/global causes
Follow Western model	System is exploitative
Optimistic	Critical
Focus on progress	Focus on inequality

Traditional security

Focus on state survival, emphasizing military power, geopolitics, and diplomacy in interactions between states.

Human Security

A broader concept of security focusing on the safety and well-being of individuals rather than just the state.

Shift in Security Thinking (1980s)

Scholars like Barry Buzan expanded security beyond military concerns to include economic, social, and environmental factors.

Sovereignty Problem

States resist outside interference in internal affairs, especially regarding human rights.

Human Security Framing Advantage

Talking about “security” instead of “rights” makes it easier for international organizations to engage states without triggering sovereignty concerns.

Two Main Aspects of Human Security

• Protection from chronic threats (disease, hunger, repression)

• Protection from sudden disruptions (economic or social instability)

Seven Dimensions of Human Security

1. Economic Security

2. Political Security

3. Food Security

4. Community Security

5. Health Security

6. Environmental Security

7. Personal Security

Economic Security

Access to basic income through work or social welfare

Political Security

Protection of human rights and freedoms from government repression.

Food Security

Reliable access to sufficient and nutritious food.

Community Security

Protection from ethnic/sectarian violence and preservation of cultural identity.