Trins Psy exam 3

What are the research goals of a behavior geneticist?

1. Estimate genetic & environmental contributions

2. Identify specific genes

3. Study G×E & rGE

4. Track developmental changes

5. Investigate genetic overlap

What are the research goals of an evolutionary psychologist?

1. Understand psychological mechanisms as adaptations

2. Reverse engineer behavior

3. Identify domain-specific modules

4. Test predictions about universal human nature

5. Explain sex differences

6. Apply evolutionary theory to modern behavior

what is the difference between nature (genetics) and nurture (environment).

• Nature (Genetics): The influence of inherited DNA on development and behavior. This includes genes, chromosomes, and heritable biological factors that are passed from parents to offspring.

• Nurture (Environment): The influence of external, experiential factors on development and behavior. This includes upbringing, culture, education, nutrition, trauma, social relationships, and learning.

Define culture, social norms, and social scripts.

1. Culture: Shared beliefs, values, customs, and behaviors passed down through generations in a society.

2. Social Norms: Unwritten rules for acceptable behavior in a group or society.

3. Social Scripts: Mental step-by-step guides for how to act in specific social situation

How and why do researchers use twin and adoption studies to parse apart nature and nurture?

To separate genetic (nature) and environmental (nurture) influences on a trait. Twin and adoption studies naturally "control" for one variable while allowing the other to vary.

Define social learning theory.

A theory that people learn new behaviors, attitudes, and emotional reactions by observing and imitating others (models) and by observing the consequences of those others' actions.

What is epigenetics and its role in nature vs. nurture?

Epigenetics is the study of changes in gene expression that occur without changing the DNA sequence itself, and its role is to bridge nature and nurture by showing how environmental factors such as diet, stress, and parenting can add or remove epigenetic tags that turn genes on or off.

What are some cultural influences on gender roles?

1. Division of labor

2. Childhood socialization

3. Media and language

What are the research goals of developmental psychology?

1. Explain individual differences

2. Describe normal developmental changes

3. Understand mechanisms of change

4. Optimize development

What are the two common research methods used by developmental psychologists?

1. Cross-Sectional Design

2. Longitudinal Design

What environmental factors can impact prenatal development?

1. Alcohol

2. Tobacco

3. Illegal drugs

What are Piaget's contributions to our understanding of cognitive development?

• Four distinct stages of cognitive development:

• Sensorimotor stage (0–2 years): object permanence

• Preoperational stage (2–7 years): egocentrism, lack of conservation

• Concrete operational stage (7–11 years): logical thinking, conservation

• Formal operational stage (12+ years): abstract and hypothetical reasoning

What are the cognitive deficits and advancements at each stage of Piaget's theory?

Sensorimotor (0–2 years)

• Advancement: Object permanence (knowing things exist when out of sight)

• Deficit: Out of sight, out of mind (no object permanence at the beginning)

Preoperational (2–7 years)

• Advancements: Symbolic thinking (language, pretend play); egocentrism decreases by end of stage

• Deficits: Egocentrism (cannot take another's perspective); lack of conservation (doesn't understand quantity stays same despite shape change); animism (believes inanimate objects have feelings); irreversibility (cannot mentally reverse an action)

Concrete Operational (7–11 years)

• Advancements: Conservation (understands quantity, mass, volume stay same); reversibility (can mentally reverse actions); decentration (considers multiple aspects of a problem); classification (can sort by multiple categories); seriation (can arrange items by dimension like size)

• Deficit: Cannot think abstractly or hypothetically (limited to concrete, real-world situations)

Formal Operational (12+ years)

• Advancements: Abstract reasoning (philosophy, justice, love); hypothetical-deductive reasoning (forms hypotheses and tests systematically); thinks about future possibilities and "what if" scenarios; metacognition (thinking about thinking)

• Deficit: Adolescent egocentrism (imaginary audience, personal fable) – though some argue this is not a true cognitive deficit

What are examples of scaffolding?

1. Putting together a puzzle

2. Learning to tie shoes:

3. Teaching new words:

What are the key differences between Piaget's and Vygotsky's views of cognitive development?

• Piaget believed children construct knowledge independently through universal stages, with development preceding learning.

• Vygotsky believed social interaction and language drive cognitive development, with learning preceding development through scaffolding within the Zone of Proximal Development.

What are the key contributions from Harlow's study of monkeys?

• Contact comfort is more important than food for attachment

• Soft cloth "mother" preferred over wire mother with food

• Comfort provides a secure base for exploration

Describe how parent-infant attachment bonds form.

Through consistent, sensitive, and responsive caregiving combined with physical comfort

Describe how psychologists study attachment differences, and discuss what they have learned.

There are four attachment styles (secure, anxious-ambivalent, avoidant, disorganized), with secure attachment linked to responsive caregiving and better later outcomes

Define each attachment style and identify real-life examples of each style.

1. Secure Attachment

• Definition: Child uses caregiver as a secure base to explore, shows distress at separation, and is happy and easily soothed upon reunion.

• Real-life example: A toddler falls while playing, runs to mom for a quick hug, then immediately goes back to playing.

2. Anxious-Ambivalent (Resistant) Attachment

• Definition: Child is clingy and overly dependent, extremely distressed at separation, and both seeks and resists comfort upon reunion (angry, fussy, not easily soothed).

• Real-life example: A child cries uncontrollably when mom leaves the room; when she returns, the child hits her but also refuses to be put down.

3. Avoidant Attachment

• Definition: Child ignores caregiver, shows little distress at separation, and avoids or ignores caregiver upon reunion (treats parent and stranger similarly).

• Real-life example: A child continues playing when mom leaves and looks away or turns back when she returns and tries to greet him.

4. Disorganized Attachment

• Definition: Child shows confused, contradictory, or odd behaviors (freezing, rocking, approaching then turning away); often seen in abused or neglected children.

• Real-life example: A child sees mom return, walks toward her with a blank stare, then suddenly falls to the floor or covers her mouth in fear.

Define temperament.

Innate, biologically based behavioral tendencies present from birth

Define each parenting style and identify examples of each style.

Authoritative

• Definition: High warmth + high control/demandingness. Parents are responsive, set clear rules and expectations, explain reasoning, and encourage independence within limits.

• Example: A child wants to stay up late. Parent says, "No, bedtime is 9 PM because you need sleep for school tomorrow. But you can choose which book to read before bed."

2. Authoritarian

• Definition: Low warmth + high control/demandingness. Parents are strict, expect obedience without question, use punishment, and show little affection or explanation.

• Example: A child wants to stay up late. Parent says, "No because I said so. Go to bed now or you're grounded."

3. Permissive (Indulgent)

• Definition: High warmth + low control/demandingness. Parents are lenient, avoid confrontation, set few rules, and give in to child's desires.

• Example: A child wants to stay up late. Parent says, "Okay, stay up as late as you want. Whatever makes you happy."

4. Neglectful (Uninvolved)

• Definition: Low warmth + low control/demandingness. Parents are detached, uninvolved, show little attention to child's needs, and may ignore misbehavior.

• Example: A child wants to stay up late. Parent doesn't respond or notice because they are not paying attention to what the child does.

Describe the outcomes associated with each parenting style.

Authoritative (High warmth + High control)

• Outcomes: Best overall outcomes

Authoritarian (Low warmth + High control)

• Outcomes: Mixed to negative outcomes

Permissive (High warmth + Low control)

• Outcomes: Negative outcomes

Neglectful (Low warmth + Low control)

• Outcomes: Worst outcomes

Define adolescence, and describe how physical changes affect developing teens.

Definition: The developmental period of transition from childhood to adulthood, typically beginning around ages 10–12 and ending around ages 18–21. It involves rapid physical, cognitive, and social changes.

Voice deepening and first ejaculation (spermarche)

Describe Erikson's contributions to the understanding of psychosocial development?

Erikson's Key Contributions:

• Extended development across the entire lifespan (birth to death), not just childhood

• Emphasized social and cultural influences, not just biological/sexual (unlike Freud)

• Proposed eight stages, each with a specific psychosocial crisis or conflict to resolve

• Successful resolution leads to a virtue (strength); failure leads to poor adjustment

What is the main objective of adolescent development according to developmentalists?

Forming a clear sense of identity and autonomy

What are Kohlberg's stages of moral development?

What are Kohlberg's stages of moral development?

A.

Preconventional Level (self-interest)

• Stage 1: Obedience & Punishment – avoid punishment

• Stage 2: Individualism & Exchange – seek rewards

Conventional Level (social rules)

• Stage 3: Interpersonal Relationships – gain approval

• Stage 4: Maintaining Social Order – follow laws, uphold duty

Postconventional Level (abstract principles)

• Stage 5: Social Contract & Individual Rights – laws can be flexible

• Stage 6: Universal Ethical Principles – follow internal moral compass

What are the physical changes that occur during middle and late adulthood?

Middle Adulthood (ages ~40–65):

• Vision decline: Presbyopia (difficulty focusing on close objects); need for reading glasses

• Hearing loss: Presbycusis (difficulty hearing high-frequency sounds)

• Skin changes: Wrinkles, age spots, thinning skin, decreased elasticity

• Hair changes: Graying, thinning, hair loss (balding in men)

• Weight gain: Slower metabolism, increased body fat, decreased muscle mass

• Bone density loss: Osteoporosis risk increases (especially in women after menopause)

• Muscle strength loss: Sarcopenia (gradual muscle loss)

• Reproductive changes: Menopause (end of menstruation) in women; decreased testosterone/sperm count in men

• Cardiovascular changes: Increased blood pressure, artery stiffness

• Sleep changes: Lighter sleep, more nighttime awakenings

Late Adulthood (ages 65+):

• Vision worsens: Cataracts, glaucoma, macular degeneration; increased risk of blindness

• Hearing loss progresses: Significant hearing impairment common

• Mobility decline: Joint pain (arthritis), reduced flexibility, slower gait, balance problems (fall risk)

• Muscle and bone loss accelerates: Frailty, osteoporosis, increased fracture risk (especially hip)

• Brain changes: Slower processing speed, reduced working memory, shrinkage of brain volume

• Cardiovascular disease: Higher risk of heart attack, stroke, high blood pressure

• Immune system decline: Increased susceptibility to infections and slower healing

• Bladder control issues: Incontinence becomes more common

• Dental changes: Tooth loss, gum disease

• Sleep disruption: More difficulty falling/staying asleep; less deep sleep

How does memory change with age?

With age, working memory, episodic memory, recall, prospective memory, and processing speed typically decline, while semantic memory (general knowledge), recognition, and procedural memory (skills and habits) remain stable or even improve.

What are the relationships between aging and exercise?

Regular exercise slows cognitive and physical decline associated with aging, while a sedentary lifestyle accelerates it.

How does our well-being change across the lifespan?

Well-being tends to be high in childhood, dips during adolescence and early adulthood, gradually increases through middle adulthood, and remains relatively high in late adulthood, though physical health declines; overall, life satisfaction often follows a U-shaped curve, with the lowest points occurring in the 40s and 50s before rising again in older age.

What are the goals of a motivation scientist?

Motivation scientists seek to explain what causes behavior, what determines its direction and intensity, and why people start, continue, or stop pursuing particular goals.

Define motivation.

Motivation is the force that drives us to act, choose, and persist toward a goal.

What are the 4 main theories of motivation?

• Instinct Theory: Innate fixed patterns drive behavior

• Drive Theory: Biological tension pushes us to act

• Arousal Theory: We seek optimal stimulation level

• Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs: Lower needs first, then higher needs

What are the physiological factors that produce hunger?

• Empty stomach

• Low blood glucose

• Ghrelin (increases hunger)

• Leptin, insulin, CCK, PYY (decrease hunger)

• Hypothalamus (lateral = hunger; ventromedial = fullness)

Discuss cultural and situational factors that influence hunger.

Cultural Factors:

• Food preferences:

• Meal timing and frequency:

• Portion sizes:

• Rituals and customs:

• Social meaning of food:

Situational Factors:

• Food availability:

• Stress: "

• Social facilitation:

• Portion size cues:

• Variety:

• Distraction:

• Time of day:

• Advertising and marketing:

• Cultural norms for body size:

How do hormones influence human sexual motivation?

Testosterone is the primary hormone that increases sexual desire in both men and women, while estrogen and progesterone play weaker, more indirect roles, but human sexual motivation is far more strongly influenced by psychological, social, and cultural factors than by hormones alone.

Describe what we know about sexual orientation.

Sexual orientation is primarily biologically influenced (genetics, prenatal hormones, brain structure), not caused by environment or upbringing, and is not a choice nor something that can be changed through therapy.

Why do humans have a strong motivation to belong/affiliate?

The need to belong is an evolved survival mechanism; social connection increases safety, reproduction, and health, while isolation triggers pain and increases risk of illness and death.

Why do ostracism and rejection hurt, and how is that associated with our motivation?

Ostracism and rejection hurt because the brain processes social pain using the same neural regions (anterior cingulate cortex) that process physical pain, which evolved as a warning system to alert us that our belongingness is threatened—and this motivates us to change our behavior, seek reconnection, and avoid future exclusion, since social bonds were critical for survival.

Describe self-determination theory (SDT) and its key concepts with real-life examples.

Definition: A theory of human motivation that focuses on how social and environmental factors support or undermine intrinsic motivation and well-being. It emphasizes that people are naturally growth-oriented when their basic psychological needs are met.

• Key Concept 1: Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Motivation

• Key Concept 2: The 3 Basic Psychological Needs

Define and identify examples of achievement goals.

Definition: Achievement goals are the cognitive representations of what a person is trying to accomplish in achievement situations (e.g., school, sports, work). They guide how individuals approach, interpret, and respond to tasks involving competence.

Two Main Types:

Mastery Goals (Learning Goals)

Developing competence, learning, self-improvement, mastering a task

Performance Goals (Ability Goals)

Demonstrating competence relative to others, looking smart, outperforming peers

Identify examples of research-supported ways of enhancing motivation and achieving goals.

1. Set SMART Goals

• Specific (clear, not vague)

• Measurable (track progress)

• Achievable (realistic, not impossible)

• Relevant (meaningful to you)

• Time-bound (deadline)

1. Use Implementation Intentions (If-Then Plans)

2. Break Large Goals into Subgoals

3. Monitor Progress

4. Use Rewards Strategically