AP Psych UNIT 2

Selective Attention

Focusing conscious awareness on a particular stimulus. “Multitasking” is a myth—consciousness can only focus on one thing at a time.

Cocktail Party Effect, Inattentional Blindness, and Change Blindness

What are the 3 main theories of selective attention?

Cocktail Party Effect

The ability to filter out all noises except for a select one; can pick out and focus on one voice within a sea of many.

Cognitive Radar

Operates on another track of the mind; if another voice speaks your name during that cocktail party, this ability instantly brings that voice into your consciousness.

Inattentional Blindness

Failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere. (ex. Counting how many times the white-shirt players pass the ball, only to miss a moonwalking bear pass through).

Change Blindness

Failing to notice changes in the environment; a form of inattentional blindness.

Expectation, Context, Motivation, and Emotion

What 4 factors influence perception?

Expectation (effects on perception)

An effect on perception; lead by top-down processing, mental tendencies & assumptions (incl. stereotypes) can influence/affect what we sense.

Perceptual Set

A term to do with expectation’s effect on perception; mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another.

Context (effects on perception)

An effect on perception; examples include… being a car driver versus a pedestrian and always disliking the opposite side… with “eel is on the wagon” you hear “wheel” but with “eel is on the orange” you hear “peel.” Also includes the influence of cultural _____.

Motivation (effects on perception)

An effect on perception; gives us energy as we work towards a goal, and can bias our interpretations of neural stimuli. Examples include… desirable objects might seem closer than they really are… a hill may look steeper if we’re carrying a heavy bag or are tired.

Emotion (effects on perception)

An effect on perception; can push perception in one direction or another. Examples include… hearing sad music predisposes ppl to hear sad meanings in homophones… when made to feel mildly upset by subliminal exposure to a scowl, ppl perceive neural face as less attractive/likeable.

Gestalt Psychology

Examines how people tend to organize visual sensations into meaningful wholes. For example, as we look straight, we percieve left/right fields of view as a seamless, integrated scene. “The whole may exceed the sum of its parts.”

Figure-Ground, Grouping by Proximity, Grouping by Similarity, Grouping by Closure

What are the 4 Gestalt principles?

Figure-Ground

The organization of the visual field into objects (figures) that stand out from their surroundings (ground). Note: this applies to hearing, too.

Grouping

The perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into coherent groups, whether by proximity, similarity, or closure.

Proximity (Grouping)

The perceptual tendency to group nearby figures together.

Similarity (Grouping)

The perceptual tendency to group objects according to similarities.

Closure (Grouping)

The perceptual tendency to fill in gaps to create a complete/whole object/picture.

Depth Perception

The ability to see objects in 3 dimensions although the images that strike the retina are 2-dimensional; allows us to judge distance.

Visual Cliff Experiment

A laboratory experiment used to test depth perception in infants & young animals. Had parents coax infants on a “cliff” to lean over (non-visible) glass or crawl onto it. Most refused, proving they could perceive depth.

Binocular Cues, and Monocular Cues

What are the 2 categories of depth cues?

Binocular Cues (Depth)

A depth cue category that depends on the use of the 2 eyes.

Retinal Disparity, and Convergence

What are the 2 kinds of binocular cues?

Retinal Disparity (Binocular)

A binocular depth cue; by comparing retinal images from the 2 eyes, the brain computes distance—the greater the difference between the 2 images, the closer the object.

Convergence (Binocular)

A binocular depth cue to nearby objects’ distance, enabled by the brain combining retinal images. The brain calculates an object's distance based on the inward rotation of the eyes.

Monocular Cues (Depth)

A depth cue category that is available to either eye alone.

Relative Clarity, Relative Size, Texture Gradient, Interposition, and Linear Perspective

What are the 5 kinds of monocular cues?

Relative Clarity (Monocular)

A monocular depth cue; because more light passes through objects that are farther away, we perceive these objects as hazy, blurry, or unclear. Nearby objects, by contrast, appear sharp & clear.

Relative Size (Monocular)

A monocular depth cue; if we assume 2 objects are similar in size, most ppl perceive the one that casts the smaller retinal image as farther away.

Texture Gradient (Monocular)

A monocular depth cue; moving toward or away from an object changes our perception of its smoothness or texture. Close up, we can see more texture/detail, while far away, we may perceive it as smooth.

Interposition (Monocular)

A monocular depth cue; If one object partially blocks our view of another, we perceive it as closer.

Linear Perspective (Monocular)

A monocular depth cue; parallel lines appear to meet in the distance; the sharper the angle of convergence, the greater the perceived distance.

Stroboscopic Effect, Phi Phenomenon, and Autokinetic Effect

What are 3 effects we experience when perceiving motion?

Stroboscopic Effect

An illusion of continuous movement (as in motion pictures) experienced when viewing a rapid series of slightly varying still images.

Phi Phenomenon

An illusion of movement created when two or more adjacent lights blink on & off in quick succession.

Autokinetic Effect

The illusory movement of a still spot of light in a dark room.

Perceptual Constancy

Perceiving objects as unchanging (having consistent color, brightness, shape, and size) even as illumination and retinal images change.

Color, Brightness, Size, and Shape

What are the 4 kinds of perceptual constancies?

Color Constancy

Perceiving familiar objects as having a consistent color, even if changing illumination alters the wavelengths reflected by the object.

Brightness Constancy

Perceiving an object as having a constant brightness, even as illumination varies.

Relative Luminance

The amount of light relative to its surroundings. Uses context to perceive objects in surrounding/environmental context.

Size Constancy

Perceiving an object as having unchanging size, even while our distance from it varies.

Shape Constancy

Perceiving an object as having an unchanging shape, even as distance and movement changes.

Perceptual Adaptation

Ability to adjust to changed sensory input, including an artificially displaced or even inverted visual field. Allows us to adapt to new surroundings or degradation in sight. (Think of the flipped goggles).

McGurk Effect

The illusion that what we hear can be influenced by what we see (ex. “ba” vs “fa” video). When senses conflict.

Cognition

All the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating.

Metacognition

Cognition about our cognition; keeping track of & evaluating our mental processes. “Beyond cognition.”

Concept

A mental group of similar objects, events, ideas, or people. It simplifies our thinking and gives us much information with little cognitive effort. Often formed by developing a “prototype.”

Prototypes

A mental image, or best example of a category. Matching items to ______ provides a quick & easy method for sorting items into categories. When we categorize things, we mentally shift them towards our category ______. (Note that these can feed stereotypes).

Schemas

A concept or framework that organizes & interprets information from the world around us. The maturing brain builds these concepts/mental molds into which we pour our experiences. (Note that these can feed stereotypes).

Assimilation

Interpreting our new experiences in terms of/according to our existing schemas/understandings.

Cognitive Accommodation

Refines schema categories that are too broad by using interactions & new experiences to provide information.

Aptitude

The ability to learn.

Creativity

The ability to produce new & valuable ideas. Hard to define, and has little-to-no correlation with intelligence.

Expertise, imaginative thinking skills, venturesome personality, intrinsic motivation, and creative environment.

What are the 5 components to creativity?

Convergent Thinking

A form of creative thinking that narrows the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution. For example, on an SAT test.

Divergent Thinking

A form of creative thinking that diverges in different directions, expanding the number of possible problem solutions. For example, on creativity tests such as “how many uses can you think of for a paper clip?”

Executive Functions

High level cognitive abilities/skills that work together, enabling us to generate, organize, plan, and implement goal-directed behavior & control impulses. Collectively, allows us to solve problems and make decisions effectively, as well as focus on long-term goals and avoid distractions.

Algorithms, Heuristics, Insight

What are the 3 strategies for problem-solving?

Algorithms

A methodical, logical rule or step-by-step procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem with a solution. Contrasts with the speedier but more error-prone heuristics. For example, trying all 907,200 permutations to solve the word scramble “SPLOYOCHYG.”

Heuristics

A simple thinking-strategy—a mental shortcut—that often allows us to make judgments & solve problems efficiently. Usually speedier but more error-prone than algorithms. For example, considering common combos of letters to solve the word scramble “SPLOYOCHYG.” Another example is rule-of-thumb.

Insight

A sudden realization of a problem’s solution; contrasts with strategy-based solutions. Brain scans show bursts of activity associated with sudden flashes of _____… “Aha!” moments, right before the frontal lobes are active.

Confirmation Bias, Fixation, Mental Set, and Functional Fixedness

What are the 4 obstacles to problem-solving and creativity?

Confirmation Bias

A tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions, and to ignore or distort contradicting evidence. For example, given 2-4-6, participants kept testing possibilities that corroborated the assumed rule (by even ascending #s), rather than testing combinations that broke their rule, such as 3-7-100, which would work with the real rule (by ascending #s).

Fixation

In cognition, the inability to see a problem from a new point of view; an obstacle to problem-solving. For example, given the instructions to use 6 matches to form 4 equilateral triangles, we must think 3D, but we might get stuck on our usual 2D POV of matches.

Mental Set and Functional Fixedness

What are the 2 examples of fixation?

Mental Set

An example of fixation; a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way that has been successful in the past. Aka, “rigidity.” A perceptual set predisposes our perception, and we fall into established thought patterns. For example, given the letters OTTF and told to extend the pattern, we might not realize it's One, Two, Three, Four, etc… (Note: the 6-match-4-triangle challenge is also an example of this).

Functional Fixedness

An example of fixation; occurs when our prior experiences inhibit our ability to find creative solutions. For example, bricklayers may only see a brick as a part of a home, rather than a possible doorstop.

Intuition, Representative Heuristics, and Availability Heuristics

What are the 3 ways we form judgments and make decisions?

Intuition

A method of forming judgment; an effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought, as contrasted with explicit, conscious reasoning.

Representative Heuristics

A method of forming judgment; judging the likelihood of events in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead us to ignore other relevant information. Can be biased, for example, racially. HOW IT IS REPRESENTED BY DATA AND PROTOTYPES YOU’VE COLLECTED

Gambler’s Fallacy

If people observe random events happening repeatedly (coin flip lands on heads x8 in a row), they may unconsciously use representative heuristics to judge the future (assuming it must be tails next).

Availability Heuristics

A method of forming judgment; judging the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common. For example, most people assume the world is more violent today because of media headlines. HOW READILY AVAILABLE IT IS IN YOUR MEMORY

Overconfidence, Planning Fallacy, Sunk-Cost Fallacy, Belief Perseverance, Framing/Word Effect, Nudge, and Priming

What are 7 factors that influence our decisions and judgments?

Overconfidence

A factor that influences judgment; the tendency to be more confident than correct—to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs & judgments. Feeds extreme political views and incorrect diagnoses. Leads to belief perseverance.

Planning Fallacy

A factor that influences judgment; overestimating our future leisure time and income. This is often a driver of students’ procrastination.

Sunk-Cost Fallacy

A factor that influences judgment; sticking to our original plan because we’ve invested our time, even when switching to a new approach could save us time. Students often do this with projects & homework.

Belief Perseverance

A factor that influences judgment; the passive persistence of one’s initial conceptions even after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited. For example, people with opposing views of capital punishment were more impressed by the “study” that supported their beliefs, and readily discredited the “study” which disproved them.

Framing/Word Effect

A factor that influences judgment; the way an issue is posed or “framed.” Can be a tool of persuasion. For example, somebody may prefer a procedure that has a 90% success rate rather than one with a 10% fatality rate, even though it's the same procedure.

Nudge

A factor that influences judgment; framing choices in a way that encourages people to make beneficial decisions. For example, since people prefer tasty to healthy, researches have nudged healthy food choices by labeling them with tastier names. For example, the choice to be an organ donor has the default answer of “yes,” which nudges a greater amount of people to select yes.

Priming

A factor that influences judgment; the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one’s perception, memory, or response. For example, after watching a movie where the m.c. cheats on a test w/out consequence, a teen may be more likely to view it as acceptable on their own upcoming exam.

Memory

the persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information.

Recall, Recognition, and Relearning

What are the 3 ways to measure the retrieval of memories?

Recall

A measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test.

Recognition

A measure of memory in which the person identifies items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test.

Relearning

A measure of memory that assess the amount of time saved when learning material again. For example, learning something more quickly the second time around.

Encode, Store, and Retrieve

What are the 3 steps to creating memories/remembering?

Encode

The first step to creating memories/remembering; the process of getting information into the memory system—for example, by extracting meaning.

Store

The second step to creating memories/remembering; the process of retaining encoded information over time.

Retrieve

The third step to creating memories/remembering; the process of getting information out of memory storage (to use).

Connectionism

An information-processing model that considers parallel processing’s role in memory. Views memories as products of interconnected neural networks with particular activation patterns that specific memories arise from. Every time you learn something new, the brain’s neural connections change (neuroplasticity), forming and strengthening pathways that allow you to interact with and learn from a constantly changing environment.

Atkinson-Shiffrin Model (1968)

This memory model proposes human memory has three sequential stores (levels, or stages): Sensory Memory, Short-Term Memory (STM), and Long-Term Memory (LTM). Information moves from Sensory to STM via attention, and from STM to LTM through rehearsal, while retrieval brings LTM info back to STM for use (consider working memory), forming the foundation for modern memory research despite later refinements. Note that automatic processing occurs during the Sensory Memory stage.

Sensory Memory, Short-Term Memory, and Long-Term Memory

What are the 3 stores/levels/stages of memory?

Sensory Memory

The first store of memory. The immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system.

Iconic and Echoic

What are the two categories of sensory memory?

Iconic Memory

A category of sensory memory; a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second. It is fleeting, and a delay will cause it to fade.

Echoic Memory

A category of sensory memory; a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds/words can still be recalled within 3–4 seconds.

Short-Term Memory

The second store of memory. Briefly activated memory of a few items (such as digits of a phone # while calling) that is later stored or forgotten.

Long-Term Memory

The third store of memory. The relatively permanent & limitless archive of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experience.