Comprehensive Archaeology Study Guide: Theories, Methods, and Case Studies

Archaeology

Study of past human societies through material remains.

Archaeological Record

All physical evidence left behind by humans.

Archaeological Data

Information archaeologists collect from the archaeological record.

Material Culture

Physical objects created, modified, or used by people.

Artifact

Portable object made or modified by humans.

Feature

Non-portable evidence of human activity (hearths, buildings, roads).

Ecofact

Natural remains that provide information about human behavior (bones, seeds, pollen).

Research Design

Plan outlining how an archaeological question will be answered.

Scientific Method

Observation → hypothesis → testing → analysis → conclusion.

Remote Sensing

Finding archaeological sites without excavation (satellites, LiDAR, radar).

Sampling

Studying a representative portion of a site.

Survey

Examining land to identify archaeological remains.

Excavation

Systematic removal of soil to recover evidence.

Stratigraphy

Study of soil layers; deeper layers are generally older.

Relative Dating

Determines whether something is older or younger than something else.

Absolute Dating

Provides an estimated calendar age.

Radiocarbon Dating

Measures decay of Carbon-14 in organic materials.

Band

Small, egalitarian hunter-gatherer group.

Tribe

Larger society organized by kinship with little centralized authority.

Chiefdom

Ranked society led by hereditary chiefs.

State

Centralized government with bureaucracy and laws.

Empire

Large political unit controlling multiple territories and peoples.

Generalized Foraging

Broad diet using many resources.

Specialized Foraging

Heavy reliance on one or a few resources.

Pastoralism

Herding domesticated animals.

Horticulture

Small-scale farming using hand tools.

Agriculture

Intensive food production.

Sedentism

Permanent settlement in one location.

Trade

Exchange of goods or services.

Bartering

Direct exchange without money.

Reciprocity

Exchange based on social relationships.

Central Administration

Government manages resources and decisions.

Bureaucracy

Officials organized into administrative systems.

Craft Specialization

Individuals focus on producing specific goods.

Social Stratification

Unequal ranking of groups.

Infrastructure

Public works such as roads and irrigation systems.

Monumental Architecture

Large structures requiring organized labor.

Egalitarian Society

Society with little social inequality.

Power

Ability to influence others.

Authority

Legitimate power accepted by society.

Archaeologies of Inequality

Study of social differences and unequal access to resources.

Identity

How people define themselves and are defined by others.

Gender

Socially constructed roles and expectations.

Sex

Biological classification.

Race

Social category based on perceived physical differences.

Racialization

Process of assigning racial meaning to people.

Ideology

Shared beliefs that justify social systems.

Masking Ideology

Beliefs that hide or justify inequality.

Culture History

Focus on describing cultures and cultural change.

Processual Archaeology

Scientific approach emphasizing explanations and systems.

Post-Processual Archaeology

Emphasizes meaning, symbolism, and human agency.

Cognitive Archaeology

Studies ancient thought and belief systems.

Human Behavioral Ecology

Examines human behavior as adaptation to environments.

Feminist Archaeology

Challenges male-centered interpretations.

Archaeology of Gender

Studies gender roles in the past.

Black Feminist Archaeology

Examines race, gender, and power together.

Intersectionality

Overlapping social identities and inequalities.

Historical Archaeology

Archaeology of literate societies with written records.

Indigenous Archaeology

Archaeology conducted with Indigenous perspectives and collaboration.

Middle-Range Theory

Links archaeological evidence to human behavior.

Cultural Resource Management (CRM)

Protecting archaeological resources during development.

Academic Archaeology

Research conducted by universities.

Undocumented Migration Project

Studies migration across the U.S.-Mexico border.

Homeless Archaeology

Studies material remains of homeless communities.

Garbology

Study of trash to understand behavior.

Public Archaeology

Archaeology involving the public.

Community Archaeology

Archaeology conducted with local communities.

Consultation

Seeking input from affected communities.

Collaboration

Working together as partners.

Pseudoarchaeology

False claims presented as archaeology.

Biological Evolution

Change in populations over time.

Bioarchaeology

Study of human remains from archaeological contexts.

Osteology

Study of bones.

Determining Age and Sex

Using skeletal features to estimate age and biological sex.

Stable Isotope Analysis

Examines chemical signatures to reconstruct diet and mobility.

Paleodiet

Ancient diet reconstruction.

Paleopathology

Study of disease in the past.

Structural Violence

Social systems that harm people indirectly.

Trauma & Lifestyle Stress

Skeletal evidence of injury and hardship.

Bioarchaeology of Care

Evidence of caregiving for disabled or ill individuals.

Palynology

Study of pollen.

Dendroclimatology

Study of past climates using tree rings.

Seasonality Studies

Determining what season activities occurred.

Domestication

Human-directed modification of plants and animals.

Stewardship

Responsibility to protect archaeological resources.

Cultural Heritage

Shared cultural resources and traditions.

Archaeology and Tourism

Relationship between archaeological sites and tourism.

Antiquities Act (1906)

First major U.S. law protecting archaeological sites.

National Historic Preservation Act (1966)

Protects historic resources.

Section 106

Requires federal projects to consider impacts on historic sites.

NAGPRA (1990)

Returns Native American human remains and sacred objects to affiliated tribes.

UNESCO

International organization protecting cultural heritage.

UNESCO 1970 Convention

Prevents illegal trafficking of cultural property.

UNESCO World Heritage Convention (1972)

Protects important cultural and natural sites.

UNIDROIT Convention (1995)

Addresses stolen cultural property.

ICOMOS

International Council on Monuments and Sites.

Vermillion Accord (1989)

Ethical guidelines for treatment of human remains.

Royal Tombs of Ur

Mesopotamian elite burials.

Nazca Lines

Massive geoglyphs in Peru.

New York African Burial Ground

Burial ground of enslaved Africans.