Kantian Ethics - Ethics

What is Kant's definition of Enlightenment?

"Enlightenment is man's release from his self-incurred tutelage… Sapere aude! 'Have courage to use your own reason!'—that is the motto of enlightenment."

What is "tutelage" according to Kant?

Man's inability to use his understanding without direction from another.

Why is tutelage "self-incurred"?

Because it is caused not by lack of reason but lack of courage and resolution.

What does Kant say about goals and freedom?

"A goal is an object of free choice… to have any goal of action whatsoever is an act of freedom… not an effect of nature."

• Metaphysics of Morals (1797)

Why does Kant reject Aquinas' natural law?

Because purpose (telos) is not given by nature but by human choice.

What kind of moral law does Kant reject and why?

He rejects moral law based on coercion (e.g. Church authority), because Enlightenment emphasises freedom and reason.

What moral laws should we follow according to Kant?

Only those identified through reason.

What does Kant say about the moral law?

"The starry heavens above me and the moral law within me."

• Critique of Pure Reason (1787)

→ Moral law is objective and accessible through reason.

What is the only thing good without qualification?

"A good will."

• Groundwork (1785)

Why is a good will good?

"It is good only through its willing - it is good in itself."

What is "good will"?

Doing the right thing because it is your duty, not for ulterior motives.

Can someone do their duty without good will? Example?

Yes.

Shopkeeper being honest to protect reputation

Donating to charity to appear altruistic

What duties does Kant identify?

Strive for others' well-being

Protect freedom

Do not commit suicide

Do not make false promises

Avoid drunkenness

What is a hypothetical imperative?

Something done if you want a certain outcome.

Example: If I want to be a barrister → I must do a law degree.

Why does Kant reject hypothetical imperatives in morality?

Because moral duty is necessary regardless of outcomes.

What is a categorical imperative?

A moral command that is unconditional.

Key quote distinguishing imperatives?

"If the action would be good simply as a means… then the imperative is hypothetical… if good in itself… then categorical."

• Groundwork (1785)

State the first formulation of the categorical imperative.

"Act only according to that maxim whereby you can… will that it should become a universal law."

What is the principle of universalisation?

Only act on rules you would want everyone to follow.

Deposit example?

If everyone denied deposits -> deposits wouldn't exist -> maxim destroys itself.

Lying example?

If everybody lied, the concept of a lie would self-eradicate. So nobody should lie.

Kant on truthfulness?

"Truthfulness is a duty that must be regarded as the basis of all duties founded on contract."

"Truthfulness…is a sacred and unconditionally commanding law of reason."

Where do Aquinas and Kant contrast on the principle of breaking rules?

St Thomas Aquinas wrote that it is counter-intuitive to suggest that we must never break a general moral rule because we may cause massive harm through our dedication to rules over consequences. Kant insists, however, that we must always act on the universalizable maxim regardless of consequence.

For example, Aquinas says that if you are at war, you needn't repay your debt to the country you are at war with as they will use that money to fight you harder.

State the second formulation of the Categorical Imperative.

"Treat humanity…never simply as a means, but always…as an end."

What does this mean?

People have intrinsic value and dignity.

Who did this Kantian thinking influence?

Karol Wojtyla, the future Pope St John Paul II, who wrote in his work on Love and Responsibility:

"Anyone who treats another person as the means…does violence to the very essence of the other."

State the third formulation of the categorical imperative.

"every rational being must so act as if he were through his maxims always a law-making member in the universal kingdom of ends."

What is the kingdom of ends?

A moral society where all treat each other as ends.

What is a contradiction in conception? (Logical contradiction)

When universalising a maxim makes it logically impossible.

This applies to perfect duties, meaning duties that must be followed without exception. If everyone followed the maxim, it would destroy the very idea that the maxim depends on.

Example: Suicide from self-love (Duty to self)

Someone might think, "Out of self-love, I should end my life to avoid suffering."

However, self-love is meant to preserve life, not destroy it. If everyone followed this principle, the concept of self-love would no longer make sense.

This is a contradiction because the idea of self-love would be undermined by the very action it is supposed to justify.

Example: Making false promises (Duty to others)

Imagine someone borrows money while falsely promising to repay it

If everyone did this, promises would lose all meaning since no one would trust them

Since promising relies on trust, and universal deception would destroy trust, the maxim contradicts itself.

Therefore, lying to borrow money is morally wrong because it results in a contradiction in conception.

What is a contradiction in will? (Practical contradiction)

When universalising a maxim creates a world that, while logically possible, is one that no rational person could consistently will to exist.

This applies to imperfect duties, which allow choice in how they are fulfilled but still must be followed.

Example: Neglecting to develop talents (Duty to self)

Imagine someone says, "I will not develop my talents; I will just enjoy life without effort."

It is possible for everyone to follow this rule, so it does not create a contradiction in conception .

Therefore, failing to develop talents contradicts what a rational person would will.

Example: Refusing to help others (Duty to others)

Imagine someone says, "I will never help others in need; everyone should take care of themselves."

This could be universalised, meaning it does not contradict itself logically. However, no rational person would want to live in a world where no one helps each other, because we all sometimes need help.

Since you may one day need help but have willed a world where no one helps others, this contradicts your own rational will.

Therefore, helping others is a moral duty.

Kant on lying even to a murderer?

Lying is always wrong regardless of consequences.

You did nothing wrong as you did your duty.

If you lied about your friend's location, and they had moved and been murdered, then you would be at fault.

What is a postulate?

A principle so evident that it needs no further justification; it may be taken as an assumption.

What are the three postulates?

Three ideas that Kant says are necessarily being accepted when obeying a moral command.

For Kant, they were Freedom, Immortality and God.

What were Kant's religious beliefs?

There is some debate around Kant's religious beliefs.

For example, while he was a Lutheran Christian, he often made excuses not to attend services while rector of the university.

With that being said, Lutherans rarely set much store by outward devotion, focusing instead on the inward nature towards God.

The evidence from his Ethics is unclear too. While he makes repeated reference to God or "the Holy One," there is barely any consideration of God's commands and a heavy focus on reason and human intellect.

He also wrote "What is Enlightenment?" and clearly rejected what he saw as the dogmatic and condescending approach of religion at the time.

What did Kant say about freedom?

It is a core principle in Kantian ethics.

He says, "In morals, the proper and inestimable worth of an absolutely good will consists precisely in the freedom of the principle of action from all influences."

Moral choices are only possible if people are free to make them.