AP Psychology Master Definitions Guide

A comprehensive vocabulary list covering perspectives, social psychology, research methods, ethics, personality, memory, development, learning, biological bases, sensation, and psychological disorders.

Psychodynamic Perspective

A psychological perspective originally developed by Sigmund Freud emphasizing unconscious thoughts, internal conflicts, childhood experiences, and hidden motives as main influences on personality and behavior.

Behavioral Perspective

A perspective focusing on observable behavior rather than internal mental processes, suggesting behavior is learned through conditioning, reinforcement, punishment, and observation.

Humanistic Perspective

A perspective emphasizing free will, personal growth, self-esteem, and the drive toward self-actualization, associated with Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow.

Cognitive Perspective

A perspective studying mental processes such as thinking, memory, perception, language, problem-solving, and decision-making.

Biological Perspective

A perspective explaining behavior through biological processes including brain structures, neurotransmitters, hormones, genetics, and the nervous system.

Evolutionary Perspective

A perspective suggesting behavior and mental processes developed through natural selection because they helped humans survive and reproduce.

Sociocultural Perspective

A perspective examining how social interactions, cultural traditions, expectations, and gender roles shape behavior and thinking.

Biopsychosocial Perspective

A modern integrated approach explaining behavior through the interactions of biological, psychological, and social factors.

Psychology

The scientific study of behavior and mental processes.

Diffusion of Responsibility

The reduction of personal responsibility in the presence of others because pressure to act is spread across the group.

Group Polarization

The strengthening of a group’s original attitudes and beliefs after discussion with like-minded people.

Groupthink

A harmful decision-making process where the desire for harmony overrides realistic analysis and critical thinking.

Social Loafing

The tendency for people to put forth less effort when working in a group compared to when working alone.

Deindividuation

A loss of self-awareness and personal responsibility in group situations, leading to impulsive or antisocial behavior.

Social Facilitation

The tendency for the presence of others to improve performance on simple tasks but worsen performance on difficult tasks.

Altruism

Unselfish behavior intended to help another person without expecting personal reward or benefit.

Social Reciprocity Norm

A social expectation that people should return helpful actions with helpful responses.

Social Responsibility Norm

The belief that people should help those who are dependent, vulnerable, or in need even with no personal benefit.

Bystander Effect

The tendency for individuals to be less likely to offer help in an emergency when other people are present.

Situational Variables

Environmental or contextual factors influencing behavior such as location, social setting, or the presence of authority.

Attentional Variables

Factors involving focus, awareness, or distraction that affect perception and decision-making.

False Consensus Effect

The tendency to overestimate the extent to which other people share our beliefs and behaviors.

Superordinate Goals

Shared goals that require cooperation between groups to achieve and can reduce conflict.

Persuasion

The process of changing attitudes, beliefs, intentions, or behaviors through communication.

Elaboration Likelihood Model

A theory of persuasion proposing two routes to attitude change: the central route and the peripheral route.

Central Route

Persuasion occurring when people analyze evidence and logical arguments, leading to longer-lasting attitude changes.

Peripheral Route

Persuasion based on superficial cues such as attractiveness, emotions, or celebrity endorsements.

Halo Effect

A cognitive bias where an overall positive impression of a person influences judgments about their other traits.

Foot-in-the-Door Technique

A compliance strategy where a person first agrees to a small request, making them more likely to agree to a larger one later.

Door-in-the-Face Technique

A compliance strategy where a large request is refused first, followed by a smaller, more reasonable request.

Conformity

Changing behavior or beliefs to match those of a group due to social pressure.

Obedience

Following direct orders or commands from an authority figure.

Collectivism

A cultural value emphasizing group goals and social harmony over individual achievement.

Attributions

Explanations for behavior or events.

Dispositional Attributions

Explaining behavior based on internal traits or personality.

Situational Attributions

Explaining behavior based on environmental circumstances.

Explanatory Style

A person’s habitual way of explaining events.

Optimistic Explanatory Style

Explaining negative events as temporary and external.

Pessimistic Explanatory Style

Explaining negative events as permanent and personal.

Actor/Observer Bias

The tendency to attribute our own actions to situations but others’ actions to personality.

Fundamental Attribution Error

The tendency to overemphasize personality factors and underestimate situational factors when explaining others' behavior.

Self-Serving Bias

The tendency to attribute successes to oneself and failures to external causes.

Internal Locus of Control

The belief that outcomes are primarily controlled by one’s own actions.

External Locus of Control

The belief that outcomes are controlled by outside forces.

Mere Exposure Effect

Increased liking for something simply because it is familiar.

Self-Fulfilling Prophecy

Expectations that influence behavior in ways that make the expectation come true.

Normative Social Influence

Conforming to gain approval or avoid rejection.

Informational Social Influence

Conforming because others are seen as a source of accurate information.

Prejudice

An unjustified negative attitude toward a group.

Discrimination

Unfair behavior toward members of a group.

Stereotypes

Generalized beliefs about a group of people.

Mental Processes

Internal experiences such as thoughts, feelings, and memories.

Behavior

Observable actions of a person or animal.

Confirmation Bias

The tendency to search for information supporting existing beliefs.

Hindsight Bias

The tendency to believe an outcome was predictable after it occurs.

Overconfidence

Overestimating the accuracy of one’s knowledge or judgments.

Empirical Evidence

Information gathered through observation or experimentation.

Scientific Method

A systematic process for testing ideas through observation and experimentation.

Hypothesis

A testable prediction about behavior or events.

Peer Review

Evaluation of research by other experts before publication.

Replication

Repeating a study to verify results.

Reliability

The consistency of research results.

Validity

The degree to which a study measures what it claims to measure.

Research Design

The overall plan or structure of a study.

Quantitative Data

Numerical data.

Qualitative Data

Descriptive, non-numerical data.

Likert Scales

Rating scales used to measure attitudes or opinions.

Wording Effect

Changes in responses caused by the phrasing of questions.

Social Desirability Bias

The tendency to answer questions in socially acceptable ways.

Naturalistic Observation

Observing behavior in natural settings without interference.

Case Study

An in-depth examination of one individual or group.

Correlational Research

Research examining relationships between variables without determining causation.

Scatterplot

A graph showing the relationship between two variables.

Correlation Coefficient

A numerical measure of the strength and direction of a relationship.

Positive Correlation

A relationship where both variables increase or decrease together.

Negative Correlation

A relationship where one variable increases as the other decreases.

Experimental Method

Research method used to determine cause-and-effect relationships.

Independent Variable

The variable manipulated by the researcher.

Dependent Variable

The variable measured in an experiment.

Confounding Variable

An outside factor that may influence results.

Operational Definitions

Specific explanations of how variables are measured or manipulated.

Experimental Group

The group exposed to the independent variable.

Control Group

The group not exposed to the independent variable.

Random Assignment

Assigning participants to groups by chance.

Placebo Effect

Improvement caused by expectations rather than the treatment itself.

Experimenter Bias

Researcher expectations influencing results.

Single-Blind Study

A study where participants do not know which treatment they receive.

Double-Blind Study

A study where neither participants nor researchers know who receives the treatment.

Placebo Condition

A fake treatment condition used for comparison.

Sample

A subset of participants chosen from a population.

Representative Sample

A sample accurately reflecting the population.

Random Sample

A sample where every member has an equal chance of selection.

Sample Bias

A flaw causing a sample to not represent the population.

Generalizability

The extent to which findings apply to larger populations.

Statistics

Mathematical methods for analyzing data.

Descriptive Statistics

Statistics describing and summarizing data.

Inferential Statistics

Statistics used to draw conclusions about populations.

Measure of Central Tendency

A number representing the center of a data set.

Mean

The arithmetic average.

Median

The middle score in a data set.