AP Psychology Unit 1.1-1.4

Heredity

Genetic transmission of traits from parents to offspring.

Environmental factors

External influences affecting individual development and behavior. Nurture

Natural selection

Evolutionary process which results in organisms being better adapted to survive and reproduce.

Eugenics

Study aimed at improving genetic quality of humans; eliminating certain genes from the gene pool

Twin studies

Research comparing similarities between identical and fraternal twins to determine power of nature vs. nurture

Central nervous system

Brain and spinal cord, controlling body functions.

Peripheral nervous system

Nerves outside the brain and spinal cord.

Somatic nervous system

Controls voluntary movements and sensory information.

Autonomic nervous system

Regulates involuntary body functions like heartbeat.

Sympathetic nervous system

Prepares body for stress-related activities, fight or flight

Parasympathetic nervous system

Calms the body and conserves energy.

Cerebral cortex

Outer layer of the brain, our thinking cap. Gray matter

Occipital lobes

Brain regions responsible for visual processing; back of brain

Temporal lobes

Involved in auditory processing and memory; located around the ears.

Parietal lobes

Processes sensory information and spatial awareness; located on the top of the brain

Frontal lobes

Associated with reasoning, planning, and movement; located in the front of the brain

Motor cortex

Controls voluntary muscle movements.

Broca's Area

Region responsible for speech production.

Wernicke's Area

Region involved in language comprehension.

Aphasia

Language impairment due to brain damage.

Thalamus

Relay station for sensory information to the cortex.

Hypothalamus

Responsible for our drives: hunger, thirst, sex & body temperature. Reward Center. Controls pituitary gland.

Reward center

Brain area associated with pleasure and motivation; dopamine is released; .involves hypothalamus

Pituitary gland

Master gland controlling other endocrine glands; responsible for growth and sexual maturation

Hippocampus

Critical for memory formation and spatial navigation.

Amygdala

Processes emotions, especially fear, anger, and pleasure.

Brain stem

Controls basic life functions like breathing.

Medulla

Regulates vital functions such as heart rate & breathing.

Cerebellum

Coordinates voluntary movements and balance.

EEG

Technique measuring electrical activity in the brain using brain waves.

fMRI

Imaging technique measuring brain activity via blood flow; shows soft tissues and areas of high activity in red/yellow

Lesioning

Deliberate damage to brain tissue for study.

Case studies

In-depth analysis of individual or group phenomena; hope is to apply what is learned to larger population (generalization)

Corpus callosum

Bundle of nerve fibers connecting the brain's hemispheres; can be severed to treat epilepsy.

Split brain research

Study of hemispheric functions after corpus callosum severing

Brain plasticity

Brain's ability to reorganize and adapt; other parts of the brain take over for missing/damaged parts.

Neurons

Cells in the nervous system that transmit information.

Glial cells

Support cells in the nervous system that play a role in providing nutrients to neurons.

Reflex arc

Involuntary neural pathway that protects us from harm/pain; involves sensory neurons, interneurons in the spine, and motor neurons. Does NOT involve the brain

All-or-nothing principle

Principle stating that a neuron either fires at full strength or does not fire at all.

Depolarization

Occurs at the start of an action potential; the inside of the axon is no longer fully negatively charged; positive ions flood into the axon

Refractory period

Period after a neuron has fired when it cannot fire again immediately: the negative charge is building back up, but not complete. Also known as repolarization.

Resting potential

The axon is negatively charged and awaiting an action potential.

Reuptake

Process where neurotransmitters are reabsorbed by the neuron that released them.

Threshold

Level of stimulation needed to trigger an action potential; excitatory signals need to outnumber inhibitory signals.

Multiple sclerosis

Autoimmune disease that affects the brain and spinal cord, leading to communication problems between the brain and the rest of the body. Caused by a break down in myelin sheath.

Myasthenia gravis

Autoimmune disease that weakens muscles by interfering with communication between nerves and muscles. Involves the blocking of ACh receptor sites.

Dopamine

Neurotransmitter involved in reward and pleasure pathways.

Serotonin

Neurotransmitter that contributes to feelings of well-being and happiness; regulates mood

Norepinephrine

Neurotransmitter that helps control alertness and arousal; gives us energy. Released during fight or flight.

Glutamate

Excitatory neurotransmitter involved in learning and memory.

GABA

Inhibitory neurotransmitter that relaxes us and helps us sleep.

Endorphins

Neurotransmitters that act as natural painkillers.

Substance p

Neurotransmitter that perceives pain.

Acetylcholine

Neurotransmitter responsible for muscle contraction.

Melatonin

Hormone that regulates sleep-wake cycles; makes us feel tired. Released in darkness; suppressed in light.

Adrenaline

Hormone that prepares the body for fight or flight response.

Ghrelin

Hormone that stimulates hunger.

Leptin

Hormone that prevents hunger; tells us we are full.

Oxytocin

Hormone involved in social bonding and childbirth; "cuddle hormone"

Agonist

External substance that binds to a receptor site and mimics a neurotransmitter.

Antagonist

External substance that binds to a receptor site and blocks a neurotransmitter.

Reuptake inhibitors

Substances that prevent the reabsorption of neurotransmitters.

Stimulants (caffeine, cocaine)

Substances that increase alertness and physical activity.

Depressants (alcohol)

Substances that slow down mental and physical activity.

Hallucinogens (marijuana)

Substances that alter perception, thoughts, and feelings.

Opioids (heroin)

Substances that act on opioid receptors to produce morphine-like effects.

Tolerance

Reduced response to a drug after repeated use.

Addiction

Compulsive drug use despite harmful consequences.

Withdrawal

Physical and psychological symptoms that occur after stopping drug use.