Module 1 Cells and Disease: Exam 1 Blueprint

Vocabulary practice cards covering cellular structure, transport mechanisms, genetics, acid-base imbalances, inflammatory signaling, and HIV/Cancer pathology.

Cytoplasm

The aqueous solution that fills the cytoplasmic matrix between the nuclear envelope and the plasma membrane, containing enzymes for intermediate metabolism and ribosomes for protein synthesis.

Nucleus

The largest membrane-bound organelle that contains DNA, RNA, and ribosomal proteins; its primary functions include cell division and control of genetic information.

Plasma membrane

The boundary of the cell that acts as a gatekeeper by controlling the movement of substances between compartments and influenced metabolic pathways.

Extracellular membrane (Matrix)

A network of proteins and carbohydrates (including Collagen, Elastin, and Fibronectin) outside cells that helps bind cells together and anchor them within tissues.

Cell adhesion molecules (CAMs)

Surface proteins such as integrins, cadherins, selectins, and immunoglobulin superfamily that function like molecular "hooks" to bind neighboring cells or the matrix.

cAMP

A second messenger whose primary functions are signal amplification and metabolic regulation.

$$Ca^{2+}$$

A second messenger responsible for contraction, secretion, and enzyme activation.

Transporters

Specific membrane transport proteins that undergo conformational changes to allow only specific ions or molecules to fit through unique binding sites.

Channels

Proteins that form pores across the lipid bilayer allowing ions and selective polar organic molecules to diffuse based on size and electrical charge.

Diffusion

The passive movement of a solute from an area of higher solute concentration to an area of lower solute concentration.

Hydrostatic pressure

The mechanical force of water pushing against cellular membranes.

Osmosis

The movement of water across a semipermeable membrane from a region of lower solute concentration to a region of higher solute concentration.

Phagocytosis

A type of endocytosis where large particles, such as bacteria, are ingested through the formation of large vesicles called vacuoles.

G1 phase

The period of the cell cycle between the M phase and the start of DNA synthesis.

S phase

The phase of the cell cycle where DNA is synthesized in the cell nucleus.

G2 phase

The period where RNA and protein synthesis occurs between the completion of DNA synthesis and start of mitosis.

M phase

The period of nuclear and cytoplasmic division consisting of prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase.

Atrophy

A decrease in cellular size most commonly affecting skeletal muscle, the heart, secondary sex organs, and the brain.

Hypertrophy

An increase in the size of cells caused by increased work demands or hormonal stimulation, involving an increase in proteins in the plasma membrane and organelles.

Hyperplasia

An increase in the number of cells caused by an increased rate of cellular division.

Metaplasia

The reversible replacement of one mature cell type by another mature cell type that can better endure environmental change or stress.

Hyponatremia

An electrolyte imbalance commonly associated with SIADH, heart failure, cirrhosis, and gastrointestinal losses.

Metabolic Acidosis

An acid-base imbalance characterized by a decrease in $HCO_3^-$ and associated with DKA, sepsis, or renal failure.

Metabolic Alkalosis

An acid-base imbalance characterized by an increase in $HCO_3^-$ and associated with vomiting, NG suctioning, or diuretic use.

Respiratory Acidosis

An acid-base imbalance characterized by an increase in $PaCO_2$ and associated with hypoventilation, COPD, or opioid overdose.

Respiratory Alkalosis

An acid-base imbalance characterized by a decrease in $PaCO_2$ and associated with hyperventilation, anxiety, or high altitude.

Adenine (A)

A purine nitrogenous base that pairs with Thymine in DNA or Uracil in RNA to transmit genetic information.

Homozygous

When a cell has identical alleles of a gene present on both homologous chromosomes.

Heterozygous

When a diploid organism's cells contain two different alleles at a gene locus (one wild-type and one mutant).

Down Syndrome (Trisomy 21)

A chromosomal abnormality with three copies of chromosome 21 ($47,XX,+21$ or $47,XY,+21$) manifesting with intellectual disability and characteristic facial features.

Turner Syndrome

Monosomy X ($45,X$) in females manifesting with short stature, webbed neck, delayed puberty, and infertility.

Klinefelter Syndrome

A condition with an extra X chromosome in males ($47,XXY$) manifesting with tall stature, small tests, infertility, and gynecomastia.

Bradykinin

The most important product of the kinin system that causes vascular permeability, smooth muscle contraction, and pain.

Mast Cells

Cells that initiate the inflammatory response by releasing chemicals like histamine, leukotrienes, and prostaglandins.

Interleukins (ILs)

Biochemical mediators produced by macrophages and lymphocytes that facilitate communication between leukocytes and regulate immune responses.

Interferons (IFNs)

Proteins produced by virus-infected cells that inhibit viral replication and activate NK cells and macrophages.

Type I Hypersensitivity

Immediate IgE-mediated reaction where allergens bind to IgE on mast cells, triggering histamine release (e.g., Asthma, Anaphylaxis).

Type IV Hypersensitivity

Delayed cell-mediated reaction occurring 48–72 hours after exposure, involving T lymphocytes and macrophages with no antibodies (e.g., Contact dermatitis).

Central Tolerance

The elimination of self-reactive cells during lymphocyte development as the first line of protection against autoimmunity.

Reverse Transcription

Step 2 of HIV infection where the enzyme reverse transcriptase converts viral RNA into double-stranded DNA.

Integration

Step 4 of HIV infection where the enzyme integrase inserts viral DNA into the host cell's chromosomes to create a provirus.

Protease

An HIV enzyme that cleaves viral proteins to produce mature, infectious virions during the maturation step.

Philadelphia chromosome

The $t(9;22)$ translocation between chromosomes 9 and 22 seen in chronic myeloid leukemia (CML).

Cachexia

A multifactorial syndrome in cancer patients characterized by involuntary weight loss, muscle wasting, anorexia, and fatigue.