Treaties

IAEA (1957) + 1997 Protocol: (International Atomic Energy Agency)

Monitors nuclear programs for peaceful use, conducts inspections of facilities, 1997 Protocol: allows short notice inspections (little as 2 hours), Problem: not all countries have ratified it.

Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (1970)

Nuclear states cannot transfer or help other states get nuclear weapons, Non-nuclear states cannot acquire or build nuclear weapons, Requires IAEA safeguard/inspections, Peaceful nuclear energy use, eventual nuclear disarmament.

Fissile Material Cut-off Treaty (FMCT)

Would ban production of weapons-grade nuclear materials, does NOT affect existing stockpiles, Intended to strengthen NPT, still under negation (verification disputes)

Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR) (1987)

Limits spread of missile technology (WMD delivery systems)), Not legally binding, No enforcement or monitoring system

Chemical Weapons Convention (1993)

Bans: development, production, stockpiling, transfer, use of chemical weapons, require destruction of stockpiles, inspections + challenge inspections allowed, includes trade sanctions (toxic chemical)

Biological Weapons Convention (1972)

Bans: development, production, stockpiling of biological weapons, Major weakness: no inspection system, Allows “defensive research” loophole (disease)

Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT) (1996)

Bans all nuclear weapons testing, Includes global monitoring system (seismographs), Not fully effective (key states like US haven’t fully committed)

Australia Group (1985)

Controls export of material used for chemical/biological weapons, Uses “trigger list” of sensitive materials (if dangerous materials are sold it triggers an alarm)

Climate Treaty (1992)

Developed countries must cap CO2 emissions at 1990 levels by 2000, Problem: not strong enough and emmisions still rise

Kyoto Protocol (1997)

34 industrialized countries must reduce emissions by 2012, Targets: US + -7%, EU = -8%, Japan = -6%, Introduced emissions trading system, Problem: developing countries had no required cuts (problem for future)

Paris Climate Agreement (2015)

Goal: keep warming below 2 degrees C (preferably 1.5 degrees C), Requires: net-zero emissions by 2050 (~50% reduction by 2030)

Montreal Protocol (1987)

Targets ozone depletion (CFCs: Chemical Composite and Properties), Required: freeze CFC use, reduce up to 50%, later complete phaseout by 1996, one of the most successful environmental treaties

Biodiversity Treaty (1992)

No strict rules, Countries must: create national plants to protect species/habitats, Promotes sharing benefits between rich & developing countries

New International Economic Order (NIEO) (1974)

Proposed by Group of 77 (developing countries), Goals: redistribute wealth & power globally, Improve trade terms for developing countries, Passed in UN General Assembly

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)

Created by UN in 1988, Provides most authoritative scientific consensus on climate change, Based on work of 2,600+ scientists + 120+ countries, Countries: change is caused by human activity (CO2 & methane)

Climate Change (Key Facts)

CO2 increased from 278 ppm (1850s) to 417 ppm (2021), Emissions must reach net zero by 2050 to stay near 1.5 degrees C, Methane: 20x stronger than CO2, Accounts for ~25% of global warming

Tipping Points

Self-reinforcing climate effects (“warming feeds warming”, Ex: Melting permafrost = releases methane = more warming

Deforestation

Forest = is 7% of land but 50% of biodiversity, ~64 million acres lost per year, Amazon could in ~60 years at current rate

Mass Extinction (Biodiversity Loss)

Species loss rate = 1,000-10,000x natural rate, ~50,000 species lost per year, Up to 1/3 of species could go extinct soon

Biosphere Reserves

Combine conservation + human use, Structure: Core protected area, buffer zone (limited use), outer zone (developmental use)

Endangered Species Act (1973)

Protects species from extinction, Govt can restrict development + protect habitat Problem: underfunded (needs billions, gets far less), Success examples: bald eagle, gray wolf, etc

Mining Law

Allows mining on public land, Criticism: cheap access and environmental damage

Dependency Theory

Word divided into: Core (rich) vs Periphery (poor), Relationship is exploitative, MNCS: extract profits and slow development in poor states

New International Economic Order (NIEO)

Demand by developing countries for wealth distribution and more global power

Import Substitution Industrialization (ISI)

Produced goods domestically instead of importing

Terms of Trade Problem

Raw materials in the South were lower valued, Manufactured goods in the north higher valued, Keeps South dependent and poor

Conditionality

Aid/loans come with conditions from IMF/World Bank

Tragedy of the Commons

Shared resources get overused and depleted, no one owns its and everyone exploits it, Classic environmental problem

Development is both the problem and the solution

Economic growth causes environmental damage, but you cannot stop development. So, solutions = compromise between growth & environment.

Short-term vs Long-term Tradeoff

Short-term: Jobs, profits, economic growth. Long-term: Environment sustainability.

Population Growth

Most growth = Global South, Leads to: more pollution, more resource demand, more conflict

Why Countries Want Nuclear Weapons

Prestige, Security, Bargaining power

Nonproliferation Strategy

Goal is to make nukes undesirable: to costly, not worth it. Tools: sanctions, inspections, export controls

Big Weakness of Treaties

Common pattern: lack of enforcement, lack of inspections, countries don’t sign

Core vs Periphery

Core = rich, industrial, Periphery = poor, raw materials. System keeps poor countries poor

Multinational Corporations (MNCs)

Benefits: Job, Technology, Investment. Costs: Exploitation, Profits leave country, little reinvestment

4 Problems South has with North

1. Raw materials vs manufactured goods.

2. Bad trade terms

3. Dependence on loans

4. Dependence for growth

Climate Change = Human Caused

Not natural variation, Caused by: Co2, Methane

Arctic/Ice Melt

Ice melting = less reflection = more heat, Speeds up warming, Feedback loop = important

Ocean Problems

Acidification, Fish collapse, Overfishing (ex: bycatch = wasted fish)

Ban on Ivory

Shows: international cooperation, conservation policy works