UNIT 0, UNIT 1, UNIT 5 (Part 2) MONDAY KNOWT TERMS.

Empiricism

The idea that knowledge comes from observation and experience, especially through the senses.

Structuralism

An early school of psychology that focused on breaking down mental processes into basic components using introspection.

Introspection

A method where individuals examine and report their own conscious thoughts and feelings.

Functionalism

A school of psychology that studies how mental and behavioral processes help organisms adapt to their environment.

Psychoanalysis

A theory and therapy developed by Freud that emphasizes unconscious motives and conflicts.

Behaviorism

The approach that studies observable behavior and explains it through learning and environmental influences.

Levels of analysis

The different ways of examining behavior, including biological, psychological, and social-cultural perspectives.

Basic research

Research conducted to expand general knowledge without immediate practical application.

Hypothesis

A testable prediction about the relationship between variables.

Theory

An organized set of concepts that explains observed phenomena and predicts future behavior.

Operational definition

A clear, precise description of how variables are measured or manipulated in a study.

Replication

Repeating a study to see if the results can be consistently reproduced.

Case study

An in-depth analysis of one individual, group, or event.

Naturalistic observation

Observing behavior in its natural environment without interference.

Survey

A method of collecting data by asking people questions about their thoughts, feelings, or behaviors.

Sampling bias

When a sample is not representative of the population being studied.

Population

The entire group that a researcher wants to study.

Random sample

A sample in which every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected.

Correlation

A statistical relationship between two variables.

Correlation coefficient

A number from -1 to +1 that indicates the strength and direction of a correlation.

Illusory correlation

The perception of a relationship between variables when none actually exists.

Experiment

A research method in which variables are manipulated to determine cause-and-effect relationships.

Independent variable

The variable that is manipulated by the researcher.

Dependent variable

The variable that is measured to see the effect of the independent variable.

Control group

The group in an experiment that does not receive the treatment.

Experimental group

The group that receives the treatment or manipulation.

Random assignment

Assigning participants to groups by chance to reduce bias.

Confounding variable

A factor other than the independent variable that might influence the results.

Double-blind procedure

An experiment where neither participants nor researchers know who is in the control or experimental group.

Placebo effect

When participants’ expectations influence their behavior or outcomes.

Validity

The extent to which a test or experiment measures what it is supposed to measure.

Reliability

The consistency of a measure or test over time.

Informed consent

Giving participants enough information about a study so they can choose whether to participate.

Debriefing

Explaining the true purpose of a study to participants after it is completed.

Charles Darwin

A naturalist who developed the theory of evolution by natural selection, explaining how traits that aid survival are passed on.

Behavior genetics

The study of how genes and environment influence behavior.

Evolutionary psychology

The study of how behavior and mental processes have been shaped by natural selection.

Natural selection

The process by which traits that help organisms survive and reproduce become more common in a population over time.

Nature

Genetic influences on behavior and development.

Nurture

Environmental influences on behavior and development.

Nature v. nurture

The debate over the relative contributions of genetics and environment to behavior.

Genome

The complete set of genetic instructions for an organism.

Phenotype

The observable traits or characteristics of an individual.

Genotype

The genetic makeup of an individual.

DNA

The molecule that carries genetic information.

Genes

Segments of DNA that code for specific traits.

Chromosomes

Threadlike structures made of DNA that contain genes.

Epigenetics

The study of how environmental factors influence gene expression without changing DNA.

Mutation

A random change in DNA that can introduce new traits.

Heredity

The passing of traits from parents to offspring through genes.

Heritability

The proportion of variation in a trait within a population due to genetic differences.

Identical twins

Twins that develop from a single fertilized egg and share identical DNA.

Fraternal twins

Twins that develop from two different eggs and share about half their DNA.

Interaction

The combined effect of genes and environment on behavior.

Studying the brain

The use of scientific methods and technologies to examine brain structure and function.

EEG (electroencephalogram)

A method that records electrical activity in the brain using electrodes on the scalp.

CT scan (computed tomography)

An imaging technique that uses X-rays to create detailed cross-sectional images of the brain.

PET scan (positron emission tomography)

A scan that shows brain activity by measuring glucose use.

MRI (magnetic resonance imaging)

A technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce detailed images of brain structure.

fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging)

A scan that shows brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow.

MEG (magnetoencephalography)

A technique that measures magnetic fields produced by neural activity.

Biological psychology

The study of the links between biological processes and behavior.

Lesioning

The removal or destruction of brain tissue to study its function.

Autopsy

Examination of the brain after death to study structure and abnormalities.

Split-brain research

Studies of patients with severed corpus callosum to understand brain hemisphere functions.

Michael Gazzaniga

A neuroscientist known for split-brain research.

Nerves

Bundles of axons that transmit information throughout the body.

Central nervous system

The brain and spinal cord.

Peripheral nervous system

All nerves outside the brain and spinal cord.

Spinal cord

A structure that transmits signals between the brain and body and controls reflexes.

Somatic nervous system

Controls voluntary muscle movements.

Autonomic nervous system

Controls involuntary bodily functions.

Endocrine system

A system of glands that release hormones into the bloodstream.

Sympathetic NS

Arouses the body for fight-or-flight responses.

Parasympathetic NS

Calms the body and conserves energy.

Hormones

Chemical messengers released by glands that travel through the bloodstream.

Pituitary gland

The “master gland” that controls other endocrine glands.

Pineal gland

Regulates sleep cycles by releasing melatonin.

Thyroid gland

Regulates metabolism.

Adrenal gland

Releases hormones involved in stress responses.

Pancreas

Regulates blood sugar levels.

Testes

Produce sperm and testosterone.

Ovaries

Produce eggs and hormones like estrogen.

Cortisol

A stress hormone that increases energy availability.

Oxytocin

A hormone involved in bonding, trust, and social behavior.

Reflex

An automatic, involuntary response to a stimulus.

Neuron

A nerve cell that transmits information.

Sensory neurons

Carry incoming information from senses to the brain and spinal cord.

Motor neurons

Carry outgoing information from the brain to muscles and glands.

Interneurons

Process information within the brain and spinal cord.

Glial cells

Support, nourish, and protect neurons.

Synapse

The junction between neurons where communication occurs.

Myelin sheath

A fatty layer that insulates axons and speeds up neural transmission.

Soma (cell body)

The part of the neuron that contains the nucleus.

Dendrites

Branch-like structures that receive messages from other neurons.

Resting potential

The stable, negative charge of a neuron when it is inactive.

Neural firing

The process of sending an electrical impulse down a neuron.

All-or-nothing principle

A neuron either fires completely or not at all.

Action potential

A rapid electrical impulse that travels down the axon.