ABS DAT HOLY GRAIL

what is the female gamete

the egg

CCK

1. from small intestine

2. aids in digestion of fats, proteins, and carbohydrates

3. stimulates release of bile from gallbladder

label the layers of the female gamete (outer to inner)

1. CZPPNC

2.

fast block of polyspermy

1. occurs instaneously

2. sodium channels open, allowing for Na+ influx

3. Na+ influx causes depolarization of membrane, so other sperm can't bind for a SHORT time

slow block

1. Ca2+ is released from ER into cytoplasm

2. cortical granule release contents into perivitelline space

3. membrane enlarges

4. zona pellucida detaches, preventing future sperm from binding

5. a second mietoic divison of the egg is completed

determinate (mosaic)

1. cell decides its fate early in development

2. can't develop into a complete organism

inderterminate (regulative)

1. fate of cell is determined later in development

2. can grow and become a full organism

radial cleavage

new cells are formed directly above previous cells

spiral cleavage

new cells are formed at an angle from previous cells

protostomes

1. spiral cleavage

2. determinate (mosaics)

3. schizocoelus coeloms

deuterostomes

1. radial cleavage

2. indeterminate (regulative)

3. entercoelus coeloms

cell division order

1. zygote

2. morula

3. blastula

4. gastrula

5. neurula

morula

solid ball of cells

blastula

hollow sphere of cells

blastulation

1. morula becomes a blastula

2. human embryos are referred to as blastocyts

gastrulation

1. blastula becomes the gastrula

thyroid hormones

1. lipid soluble

2. bind to receptors in nucleus

3. require blood protein carriers

catecholamines

1. water soluble

2. bind to receptors on target tissues

3. act as secondary messengers

ACTH

1. stimulates adrenal cortex

2. triggers cortisol and glucocorticoids

TSH

1. triggers thyroid gland to release T3 and T4

LH and FSH

used for estrogen and androgens

hGH

bones

prolactin

milk

ADH

kidneys

oxytocin

uterus

posterior pituitary

holds ADH and oxytocin

glucagon

1. alpha cell

2. released when low glucose levels

3. stimulates gluconeogenesis in liver

4. convers adipose tissue to blood lipids

insulin

1. beta cell

2. stimulated when glucose levels are high

3. stimulates liver and muscle to store glucose as glycogen

somatostatin

1. delta cells

2. inhibits release of insulin and glucagon

3. increases nutrient absorption by decreasing digestive flow

ADH (vasopressin)

increases wwater reabsorption by increasing nephron permeability

oxytocin

increases uterine contracts

pineal gland

1. melatonin

2. circadium rhythm

thymosins

stimulate white blood cells to become T cells

thymus

1. immune function

2. secretest thimosins that stiumate white blood cells to become T cells

posterior pituitary

1. doesn't synthesize hormones

2. stores ADH and oxytocin for release

PTH

1. raises Ca2+ levels IN BLOOD

2. stimulates osteoclasts

3. increases kidney and gut reabsorption of calcium

T3 and T4

1. increase basal metabolic rate

2. iodine prevents goiters

calcitonin

1. stimulates osteoblast activity

2. builds bone using calcium found in blood stream

adrenal medulla

epinephrine and nopinephrine

epinephrine and nopinephrine

1. fight or flight

2. converts glucogen to glucose

3. vasoconstriction to kidneys ad bladder

4. vasodilator to skeletal muscle

5. bronchodilation

6. intense activity

adrenal cortex

1. glucocorticoids

2. mineralocorticoids

glucocorticoisd

1. raises blood glucose levels

2. degrades adipose tissue to use as energy

mineralocorticoids

1. aka aldosterone

2. increases reabsorption of Na+ and excretion of K+ in kidneys

3. raises blood pressure

anterior pituitary hormones

1. LH

2. FSH

3. TSH

4. Prolactin

5. GH

6. ACTH

adrenal cortex (2)

1. responsible for steroid hormones only.

2. corticosteroids

3. glucocorticoids

4. mineralocorticoids

adrenal medulla (2)

only responsible for epinephrine and norepinephrine

glucocorticoids

1. cortisol and cortisone

2. stimulate gluconeogenesis

3. increase blood glucose levels

mineralcorticoids

aldosterone

cortical sex hormones

androgens

catecholamines

1. epinephrine and norepinephrine

2. hydrophilic hormones

amino acid derived hormones

1. Thyroid hormones (T3, T4)

- tyrosine derived

- stimulate metabolic activity

- released by follicular cells of thyroid

2. Catecholamines (epinephrine + norepinephrine)

- tyrosine derived

- short term stress response: increase blood glucose levels & heart rate, dilation of bronchi & blood vessels, blood flow directed away from gut

- released by adrenal medulla

3. melatonin

- tryptophan derived

- regulates circadian rhythm

- released by pineal gland

peptide hormones

1. insulin

2. ACTH

goiter

enlargement of thyroid gland

thyroid gland

1. releases T3/T4

2. releases calcitonin

calcitonin (2)

1. stimulates bone growth by taking up calcium from blood

2. is a peptide hormone

PTH

thymosin

1. released by thymus to stimulate T cells to fight against pathogens

glucagon

gastrin

1. release of HCl to maintain acidity of stomach

secretin

1. neutralize chyme in small intestine

central lymphoid system

1. can replenish lymphocytes

2. includes thymus and bone marrow

peptide hormones

1. binds to surface cell receptors

2. receptors stay cell signal pathways via secondary messendger

steroids

1. diffuse through plasma membrane

2. bind to receptors in cytoplasm

tthyroid hormones

1. lipid soluble

2. bind to receptors in nucleus

3. require protein carriers in blood

catecholamines

1. water soluble

2. bind receptors on target tissues

3. mainly act via secondary messengers

peripheral lymphoid tissuesc

1. cannot replenish lymphocytes

2. spleen

3. adenoids

4. appendix

5. thymus

lacteal

1. lymphatic vessels that line the small intestine

2. absorb particles that are too large for direct absorption

3. each villus contains one

lymph system overall

1. pretty much takes up the big things that other systems can't take up

2. EX: fats

3. can also help with monitoring for infection

lymph nodes

1. caused by a large amount of white blood cells

high lymphocyte

1. means there's a high amount of white blood cells

2. patient is likely fighting off an infection

peyers patches

1. aggregates of lymphoid tissue in small intestine

2. monitor intestinal bacteria

3. don't replenish lymphoid tissues

innate immunity

1. first line of cellular defense that generates a rapid and nonspecific immune response

2. think of innate as "from the birth"

what do all leukocytes come from

1. bone marrow stem cells

phagocytic leukocytes

1. internal, nonspecific defense

2. engluf foreign particles

1. neutrophils

2. monocytes

3. macrophages

4. dendritic cells

non phagotic leukocytes

1. internal nonspecific defense

2. mast cells

3. eusinophils

4. basophils

4. NK cells

neutrophils

destroy pathogens in infected tissues

monocytes

circulate in blood until they move into tissues via diapedesis where they develop into macrophages

macrophages

eat cell debris and pathogens

dendritic cells

eat pathogens and stimulate acquired immune response

mast cells

allergic responses

eusinophils

surround and destroy multicellular parasites

basophils

release histamine in inflammatory responses and are recruited to tissues when needed

NK cells

attack abnormal body cells, like tumors

abundance of leukocytes

Never Let Monkeys Eat Bananas

1. neutrophils

2. lymphocytes

3. monocytes

4. eosinophils

4. basophils

interferons

1. proteins (cytokines) secreted by T cells and other cells to aid and regulate the immune response

2. signal to neighboring cells

cytokines

Chemicals released by the immune system to help with cell-cell communication

interleukins

1. Specific type of cytokine IL-

1 involved in the inflammatory reaction IL-

2 triggers the adaptive immune response

2. involved with helper T cells

toll like receptors (TLRs)

1. link innate and aquired immunity

2. basically they see common patterns, and then start a reaction response

adaptive immunity

body recognizes antigens and then mounts an attack

antigen

basically bad. like a pathogen, but has more of an adaptive presence. BAD GUY

antibody

GOOD GUY. recognizes specific antigens to it, and then works to kill it

1. come from B cells

epitopes

specific part of antigen that antibodies bind to

B cells

1. originate and mature in the bone marrow

2. create antibodies using glycoproteins produced by B cells

different antibodies

1. IgA

2. IgD

3. IgE

4. IgG

5. IgM

antibodies facts

1. two heavy and two light chains

2. linked by a disulfide bond

clonal selection

1. when a B cell is activated by an antigen, there are more B cell mini types created

2. plasma ells

3. memory cells

plasma cells

1. daughter B cells that circulate in blood

2. dispose of antigens through aggitination, inactivation, opsonization, and lysis

memory cells

1. daughter B cells that store memoru of antigen

2. circulate and response quickly

3. much faster than the primary response

T cells

1. originate in bone marrow, but mature in the thymus

2. cytoxic T cells

3. helper T cells

4. suppressor T cells

5. memory T cells

cytotoxic T cells

killer T cells