BIO 161 Cumulative Final Exam Study Guide

Comprehensive vocabulary flashcards covering the key concepts, definitions, and chemical formulas outlined in the BIO 161 Cumulative Final Exam Guideline.

Science

The systematic study of the natural world through observation, experimentation, and evidence-gathering.

Biology

The scientific study of life and living organisms.

Controlled Experiment

A scientific test in which all variables are kept constant except for the one being tested to ensure results are due to a single factor.

Hypothesis

A testable and falsifiable explanation for a specific observation or phenomenon.

Scientific Theory

A broad, well-substantiated explanation of some aspect of the natural world that is acquired through the scientific method and repeatedly tested and confirmed through observation and experimentation.

Octet Rule

A chemical rule of thumb that reflects the observation that main-group atoms tend to combine in such a way that each atom has eight electrons in its valence shell.

Atomic Number

The number of protons found in the nucleus of an atom, which determines the chemical properties of an element.

Atomic Weight

The total mass of an atom, typically calculated as the sum of the protons and neutrons.

Covalent Bond

A chemical bond that involves the equal or unequal sharing of electron pairs between atoms.

Ionic Bond

A type of chemical bonding that involves the electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions, formed by the transfer of electrons.

Hydrogen Bond

A weak bond between two molecules resulting from an electrostatic attraction between a proton in one molecule and an electronegative atom in the other.

Organic Compounds

Chemical compounds molecules that contain carbon, which is the fundamental element in all living things due to its unique bonding capabilities.

Monomers

Small molecules that can react with other similar molecules to form very large molecules, or polymers.

Polymers

Large molecules composed of many repeating subunits (monomers) linked together.

Hydrolysis

A chemical reaction in which a water molecule is added to break down a polymer into its constituent monomers.

Dehydration Synthesis

A chemical reaction that involves the loss of a water molecule from the reacting molecules to form a bond between monomers, creating a polymer.

Denaturation

The process in which a protein loses its specific 3D shape, and consequently its function, due to external stress or compounds.

Cell Theory

The fundamental theory in biology that states all living things are composed of cells, the cell is the basic unit of life, and all cells come from pre-existing cells.

Endosymbiotic Theory

The theory that eukaryotic organelles, such as mitochondria and chloroplasts, evolved from free-living prokaryotic cells that were engulfed by a host cell.

Fluid-Mosaic Theory

A model describing the plasma membrane as a flexible layer made of lipid molecules with interspersed proteins, looking like a mosaic.

Osmosis

The passive transport or diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane.

Hypertonic Solution

A solution with a higher concentration of solutes compared to the inside of a cell, causing water to exit the cell.

Hypotonic Solution

A solution with a lower concentration of solutes compared to the inside of a cell, causing water to enter the cell.

Plasmolysis

The process in which cells lose water in a hypertonic solution, causing the plasma membrane to pull away from the cell wall in plant cells.

Turgidity

The state of being swollen and distended, specifically in plant cells when they are in a hypotonic solution and the vacuole is full.

Exergonic Reaction

A chemical reaction that releases energy, such as cellular respiration.

Endergonic Reaction

A chemical reaction that requires an input of energy, such as photosynthesis.

Enzymes

Protein catalysts that speed up chemical reactions by lowering the energy of activation ($E_a$).

Competitive Inhibition

A process where a substance mimics the substrate and binds to the active site of an enzyme, blocking the actual substrate.

Non-competitive Inhibition

A process where an inhibitor binds to an enzyme at a location other than the active site, changing the enzyme's shape so it can no longer bind the substrate.

Oxidation-Reduction (Redox) Reactions

Chemical reactions involving the transfer of electrons from one reactant to another.

Overall Equation for Aerobic Cellular Respiration

$$C_6H_{12}O_6 + 6O_2 \rightarrow 6CO_2 + 6H_2O + \text{ATP}$$

Overall Equation for Photosynthesis

$$6CO_2 + 6H_2O + \text{light energy} \rightarrow C_6H_{12}O_6 + 6O_2$$

Binary Fission

A type of asexual reproduction and cell division used by prokaryotic organisms.

Crossing Over

The exchange of genetic material between homologous chromosomes during Prophase I of meiosis, leading to genetic variation.

Independent Assortment

A principle of genetics stating that different genes independently separate from one another when reproductive cells develop.

Diploid ($2n$)

A cell or organism containing two complete sets of chromosomes, one from each parent.

Haploid ($n$)

A cell containing only one complete set of chromosomes, typical of gametes.

Phenotype

The observable physical or biochemical characteristics of an organism, determined by its genotype and environment.

Genotype

The genetic constitution of an individual organism.

Polygenic Inheritance

A pattern of inheritance in which multiple independent genes have similar and additive effects on a single trait.

Chromosomal Non-disjunction

The failure of homologous chromosomes or sister chromatids to separate properly during cell division, resulting in an abnormal number of chromosomes.

Transcription

The process of copying a segment of DNA into RNA by the enzyme RNA polymerase.

Translation

The process in which ribosomes in the cytoplasm or endoplasmic reticulum synthesize proteins after the process of transcription.

Restriction Enzymes

Proteins produced by bacteria that cleave DNA at specific sequence sites, used in gene cloning and DNA fingerprinting.

PCR (Polymerase Chain Reaction)

A laboratory technique used to make multiple copies of a specific DNA segment.