final ap exam

Wilhelm Wundt

Father of psychology, focused on reaction to sensory stimuli.

Edward Titchner

Developed Structuralism, using introspection to explore the elemental structure of the human mind.

Plato/Socrates

Believed mind and body are separate (dualism).

Aristotle

Emphasized experience as the source of knowledge, not innate; precursor to modern Empiricism.

René Descartes

Mind and body interact; 'spirit animals' (animal spirits) flow through nerves.

John Locke/Francis Bacon

Advocated Modern Empiricism, knowledge derived from sense experience.

Charles Darwin/William James

Developed Functionalism, focusing on how mental and behavioral processes function.

Curiosity

Passion for exploration.

Skepticism

Questioning assumptions.

Humility

Awareness of vulnerability to error.

Mary Calkins

Student of William James, denied Ph.D. due to gender, first female president of the APA.

Margaret Washburn

First female to earn a Ph.D. in Psychology.

Dorothea Dix

Advocate for the mentally ill, leading to humane treatment.

Behaviorism (B.F. Skinner, John Watson)

Focuses on observable behavior and how it's learned, ignoring mental processes.

Psychoanalytic (Sigmund Freud)

Emphasizes the influence of unconscious drives and conflicts on behavior.

Humanistic

Focuses on human potential for growth and self-actualization.

Cognitive

Studies mental processes like thinking, perceiving, learning, and problem-solving.

Basic Research

Conducts fundamental studies to increase understanding of psychological processes.

Applied Research

Applies psychological principles to practical problems.

Clinical Psychology

Assesses and treats mental, emotional, and behavioral disorders.

Counseling Psychology

Helps people cope with challenges and improve personal and social functioning.

Hypothesis

A testable prediction, often implied by a theory.

Theory

An explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors.

Operational Definition

A carefully worded statement of the exact procedures used in a research study.

Descriptive Studies

Research that describes behaviors without manipulation.

Case Study

In-depth analysis of one individual or group.

Naturalistic Observation

Observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without manipulation.

Survey

Gathering self-reported attitudes or behaviors from a particular group.

Correlation

A measure of the extent to which two factors vary together.

Scatterplots

Graphs of data points, each representing the values of two variables.

Experiment

A research method where an investigator manipulates one or more factors to observe effects.

Independent Variable (IV)

The factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied.

Dependent Variable (DV)

The outcome that is measured; the variable that may change in response to manipulations.

Placebo

An inert substance or condition that may be administered instead of a presumed active agent.

Validity

The extent to which a test or experiment measures or predicts what it is supposed to.

Informed Consent

Participants must be told enough to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate.

Protection from Harm

Researchers must protect participants from physical or psychological harm and discomfort.

Confidentiality

Information about participants must be kept private.

Debriefing

Post-experimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants.

Mean

The arithmetic average of a distribution.

Median

The middle score in a distribution.

Mode

The most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution.

Range

The difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution.

Standard Deviation

A computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score.

Statistical Significance

A statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance.

Replication

Repeating the essence of a research study to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants.

Neuron

The basic building block of the nervous system.

Dendrites

Receive messages from other cells.

Axon

Passes messages away from the cell body to other neurons, muscles, or glands.

Myelin Sheath

Fatty tissue layer insulating the axon, speeding up impulses.

Terminal Buttons

Form junctions with other cells and release neurotransmitters.

Neurotransmitters

Chemical messengers that transmit signals across a synapse.

ACH (Acetylcholine)

Muscle contraction, learning, memory.

Dopamine

Movement, learning, attention, emotion, reward.

Serotonin

Mood, hunger, sleep, arousal.

GABA (Gamma-aminobutyric acid)

Major inhibitory neurotransmitter.

Endorphins

Natural opiates, pain control, pleasure.

Agonist

A molecule that increases a neurotransmitter's action.

Antagonist

A molecule that inhibits or blocks a neurotransmitter's action.

Sensory Neurons

Carry incoming information from sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord.

Motor Neurons

Carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to muscles and glands.

Interneurons

Neurons within the brain and spinal cord that communicate internally.

Reflex Arc

A simple, automatic response to a sensory stimulus.

Central Nervous System (CNS)

Brain and spinal cord.

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

Sensory and motor neurons connecting the CNS to the rest of the body.

Somatic Nervous System

Controls voluntary movements of skeletal muscles.

Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)

Controls self-regulated action of internal organs and glands.

Sympathetic Nervous System

Arousing, 'fight or flight' response.

Parasympathetic Nervous System

Calming; 'rest and digest' response.

Pituitary Gland

Master gland that secretes growth hormone.

Adrenal Glands

Secrete adrenaline/epinephrine and norepinephrine.

Medulla

Controls heartbeat and breathing.

Pons

Controls sleep and movement coordination.

Thalamus

Sensory relay station.

Hypothalamus

Regulates drives (hunger, thirst, temp) and governs the endocrine system.

Frontal Lobe

Involved in speaking, muscle movements, and making plans and judgments.

Parietal Lobe

Receives sensory input for touch and body position.

Occipital Lobe

Receives information from visual fields.

Temporal Lobe

Receives auditory information, primarily from the opposite ear.

Wernicke's Area

Controls language reception, understanding, and meaning.

Broca's Area

Controls language production and directs muscle movements involved in speech.

Corpus Callosum

Connects the brain's two hemispheres.

Identical Twins

Develop from a single fertilized egg that splits, genetically identical.

Heritability

The proportion of variation among individuals in a group that we can attribute to genes.

Epigenetics

The study of environmental influences on gene expression without DNA change.

Circadian Rhythm

Our biological clock that regulates bodily rhythms on a 24-hour cycle.

NREM Sleep

Non-rapid eye movement sleep consisting of stages 1-3.

REM Sleep

Rapid eye movement sleep, paradoxical sleep where vivid dreaming occurs.

Tolerance

Diminishing effect of a drug with regular use, requiring larger doses for the desired effect.

Withdrawal

Discomfort and distress following discontinuation of an addictive drug.

Classical Conditioning

Learning to associate two stimuli to anticipate events.

Operant Conditioning

Learning that occurs based on rewards and punishments.

Positive Reinforcement

Increasing behaviors by presenting positive reinforcers.

Negative Reinforcement

Increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli.

Cognitive Development

The process of growth and change in intellectual/mental abilities.

Schema

A mental framework for organizing and interpreting information.

Assimilation

When new information fits existing schemas.

Accommodation

Changing schemas to fit new information.

Attachment

Emotional bond with caregivers.

Secure Attachment

Trusting and relying on caregivers.