final ap exam
Unit 1: Foundations of Psychology
Early Thinkers & Schools of Thought
Wilhelm Wundt: Father of psychology, focused on reaction to sensory stimuli.
Edward Titchner: Developed Structuralism, using introspection to explore the elemental structure of the human mind.
Plato/Socrates: Believed mind and body are separate (dualism).
Aristotle: Emphasized experience as the source of knowledge, not innate; precursor to modern Empiricism.
René Descartes: Mind and body interact; "spirit animals" (animal spirits) flow through nerves.
John Locke/Francis Bacon: Advocated Modern Empiricism, knowledge derived from sense experience.
Charles Darwin/William James: Developed Functionalism, focusing on how mental and behavioral processes function to help organisms adapt, survive, and flourish.
Key Qualities of Scientific Inquiry
Curiosity: Passion for exploration.
Skepticism: Questioning assumptions.
Humility: Awareness of vulnerability to error.
Pioneering Women in Psychology
Mary Calkins: Student of William James, denied Ph.D. due to gender, first female president of the APA.
Margaret Washburn: First female to earn a Ph.D. in Psychology.
Dorothea Dix: Advocate for the mentally ill, leading to humane treatment.
Major Perspectives in Psychology
Behaviorism (B.F. Skinner, John Watson): Focuses on observable behavior and how it's learned, ignoring mental processes.
Psychoanalytic (Sigmund Freud): Emphasizes the influence of unconscious drives and conflicts on behavior.
Humanistic: Focuses on human potential for growth and self-actualization.
Cognitive: Studies mental processes like thinking, perceiving, learning, remembering, communicating, and problem-solving.
Subfields of Psychology
Basic Research:
Biological: Explores links between biological and psychological processes.
Developmental: Studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the lifespan.
Cognitive: Studies all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating.
Experimental: Investigates basic behavioral and mental processes.
Psychometrics: Studies the measurement of human abilities, attitudes, and traits.
Applied Research:
Forensic: Applies psychological principles to legal issues.
Industrial-Organizational (I/O): Applies psychological methods to optimize workplace behavior.
Health: Focuses on psychological factors influencing health and illness.
Community: Studies how people interact with their social environments and how social institutions affect individuals and groups.
Clinical Psychology: Assesses and treats mental, emotional, and behavioral disorders.
Counseling Psychology: Helps people cope with challenges and improve personal and social functioning.
Psychiatry: Medical doctors who can prescribe medication and treat psychological disorders.
Unit 2: Research Methods
Mod 4: Thinking Critically
Hindsight Bias: "I knew it all along" phenomenon; tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it.
Overconfidence: Tendency to be more confident than correct; overestimating the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments.
Perceived Order: Tendency to see patterns in random events.
We overvalue common sense: Common sense can be contradictory and often wrong.
Mod 5: The Scientific Method
Hypothesis: A testable prediction, often implied by a theory.
Theory: An explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events.
Operational Definition: A carefully worded statement of the exact procedures (operations) used in a research study.
Descriptive Studies:
Case Study: In-depth analysis of one individual or group.
Naturalistic Observation: Observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without manipulation.
Survey: Gathering self-reported attitudes or behaviors from a particular group.
Population: All those in a group being studied, from which samples are drawn.
Random Sample: A sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion.
Representative Sample: A sample that accurately reflects the characteristics of the population.
Mod 6: Correlation and Experimentation
Correlation (+/-): A measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus how well either factor predicts the other. Used for predictions.
Correlation Coefficient: A statistical index of the relationship between two things (from -1.0 to +1.0), indicating direction and strength.
Illusory Correlation: Perceiving a relationship where none exists, or perceiving a stronger-than-actual relationship.
Correlation doesn't equal causation.
Scatterplots: Graphs of data points, each representing the values of two variables.
Experiment: A research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (dependent variable). Used to determine cause/effect.
Single-blind study: Participants are unaware of treatment group.
Double-blind study: Both participants and researchers are unaware of treatment group.
Random Assignment: Assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, minimizing pre-existing differences between groups. Controls for confounding/3rd variables.
Independent Variable (IV): The factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied.
Dependent Variable (DV): The outcome that is measured; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable.
Placebo: An inert substance or condition that may be administered instead of a presumed active agent, to see if it triggers the effects believed to characterize the active agent.
Control Group: The group not exposed to the treatment; serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment.
Experimental Group: The group exposed to the treatment (one version of the independent variable).
Validity: The extent to which a test or experiment measures or predicts what it is supposed to.
Content Validity: The extent to which a test samples the behavior that is of interest.
Predictive Validity: The success with which a test predicts the behavior it is designed to predict.
Regression to the Mean: The tendency for extreme or unusual scores or events to fall back (regress) toward the average.
Mod 7 & 8: Ethics and Statistics
Ethics in Research:
Informed Consent: Participants must be told enough to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate.
Protection from Harm: Researchers must protect participants from physical or psychological harm and discomfort.
Confidentiality: Information about participants must be kept private.
Debriefing: Post-experimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants.
Descriptive Statistics (Central Tendency):
Mean: The arithmetic average of a distribution.
Median: The middle score in a distribution.
Mode: The most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution.
Descriptive Statistics (Variation):
Range: The difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution.
Standard Deviation: A computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score.
Skewed Data: Data that is disproportionately at one end or the other of the distribution.
Inferential Statistics:
Statistical Significance: A statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance. Typically, results are considered significant if there is less than a 5% chance (p < 0.05) that they occurred by chance.
Replication: Repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances.
Other Important Considerations:
Wording Effect: How questions are phrased can influence responses.
Generalizing: Applying research findings to a larger population.
Sample Bias: When a sample is not representative of the population.
Unit 3: Biological Bases of Behavior
Neurons and Neurotransmitters
Neuron Structure:
Dendrites: Receive messages from other cells.
Axon: Passes messages away from the cell body to other neurons, muscles, or glands.
Myelin Sheath: Fatty tissue layer insulating the axon, speeding up impulses.
Terminal Buttons (Axon Terminals): Form junctions with other cells and release neurotransmitters.
Neurotransmitters (Chemical Messengers):
ACH (Acetylcholine): Muscle contraction, learning, memory.
Dopamine: Movement, learning, attention, emotion, reward.
Serotonin: Mood, hunger, sleep, arousal.
Norepinephrine: Alertness and arousal.
GABA (Gamma-aminobutyric acid): Major inhibitory neurotransmitter.
Glutamate: Major excitatory neurotransmitter, memory.
Endorphins: Natural opiates, pain control, pleasure.
Agonist: A molecule that increases a neurotransmitter's action (speeds up neural impulse).
Antagonist: A molecule that inhibits or blocks a neurotransmitter's action.
All-or-nothing response: A neuron's reaction of either firing with full strength or not firing at all.
Glial cells: Support, nourish, and protect neurons; play a role in learning and thinking.
Sensory/Afferent neurons: Carry incoming information from sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord.
Motor/Efferent neurons: Carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to muscles and glands.
Interneurons: Neurons within the brain and spinal cord that communicate internally and intervene between sensory inputs and motor outputs.
Reflex Arc: A simple, automatic, inborn response to a sensory stimulus; neural pathway involves receptors, sensory neurons, interneurons, and motor neurons.
Nervous System
Central Nervous System (CNS): Brain and Spinal Cord.
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): Sensory and motor neurons connecting the CNS to the rest of the body.
Somatic Nervous System: Controls voluntary movements of skeletal muscles.
Autonomic Nervous System (ANS): Controls self-regulated action of internal organs and glands.
Sympathetic Nervous System: Arousing; "fight or flight."
Parasympathetic Nervous System: Calming; "rest and digest."
Endocrine System (Hormonal System)
Glands/Hormones: Chemical messengers produced by endocrine glands.
Pituitary Gland: Master gland, controlled by the hypothalamus; secretes Growth Hormone.
Adrenal Glands: Secrete adrenaline/epinephrine and norepinephrine, aiding in arousal.
The Brain
Brain Structures:
Medulla: Base of brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing.
Pons: Helps coordinate movements and control sleep.
Thalamus: Sensory control center; relays messages to sensory areas and transmits replies to cerebellum and medulla.
Hypothalamus: Below the thalamus; directs maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temp), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, linked to emotion and reward.
Cerebellum: "Little brain" at the rear of the brainstem; processes sensory input, coordinates movement output and balance, enables nonverbal learning and memory.
Amygdala: Two lima-bean-sized neural clusters in the limbic system; linked to emotion (fear, aggression).
Brain Lobes:
Frontal Lobe: Forehead; speaking, muscle movements, making plans and judgments.
Parietal Lobe: Top of head toward rear; receives sensory input for touch and body position.
Occipital Lobe: Back of head; receives information from visual fields.
Temporal Lobe: Above ears; receives auditory information, primarily from the opposite ear.
Cortical Areas:
Motor Strip (Motor Cortex): Rear of frontal lobes; controls voluntary movements.
Somatosensory Strip (Somatosensory Cortex): Front of parietal lobes; registers and processes body touch and movement sensations.
Association Areas: Areas of the cerebral cortex involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking.
Brain Scans:
PET (Positron Emission Tomography): Shows brain activity by tracking glucose consumption.
MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging): Uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce detailed images of soft tissue.
CAT (Computed Tomography): X-ray photographs taken from different angles and combined to create a slice of the brain's structure.
Other Brain Concepts:
Neurogenesis: The formation of new neurons.
Consciousness: Our awareness of ourselves and our environment.
Cognitive Neuroscience: The interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (perception, thinking, memory, language).
Jody Miller (Plasticity): Refers to the brain's ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience.
Wernicke's Area: (Left temporal lobe) Controls language reception – understanding and meaning.
Broca's Area: (Left frontal lobe) Controls language expression – directs muscle movements involved in speech production.
Left Hemisphere: Language, logic, sequential tasks.
Right Hemisphere: Spatial reasoning, creativity, facial recognition, emotional expression.
Split Brain: Condition resulting from surgery that isolates the brain's two hemispheres by cutting the fibers (mainly those of the corpus callosum) connecting them.
Right Visual Field: Processed by the left hemisphere.
Left Visual Field: Processed by the right hemisphere.
Genetics and Behavior
Twin Studies: Used to study the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior.
Identical Twins: Develop from a single fertilized egg that splits; genetically identical. Higher correlation of intelligence.
Fraternal Twins: Develop from separate fertilized eggs; genetically no more similar than ordinary siblings.
Heritability: The proportion of variation among individuals in a group that we can attribute to genes.
Epigenetics: The study of environmental influences on gene expression that occur without a DNA change; how environment can trigger or block genetic expression (e.g., one twin gets a disease, the other doesn't).
Unit 4: Sensation and Perception
Visual Perception
Stroboscopic Movement: Our brain perceives a rapid series of slightly varying images as continuous movement (e.g., flip books, movies).
Phi Phenomenon: An illusion of movement created when two or more adjacent lights blink on and off in quick succession (e.g., lighted signs creating a moving arrow).
Unit 5: States of Consciousness
Sleep and Dreams
Circadian Rhythm: Our biological clock; regular bodily rhythms (e.g., temperature, wakefulness) that occur on a 24-hour cycle. Affected by photoreceptors, hypothalamus, pineal gland, melatonin.
Sleep Stages (EEG patterns):
NREM-1 (NREM Stages): Light sleep, alpha waves, hypnagogic hallucinations.
NREM-2: Deeper sleep, sleep spindles, K-complexes.
NREM-3 (Deep Sleep): Slow-wave sleep, delta waves, crucial for memory consolidation.
REM Sleep (Rapid Eye Movement): Paradoxical sleep; increased heart rate, breathing, and eye movement; vivid dreaming occurs.
Hypothalamus and SCN (Suprachiasmatic Nucleus): The SCN in the hypothalamus controls the circadian rhythm.
Dreaming: Occurs during REM sleep; content often influenced by the limbic system (amygdala).
Information-processing theory: Dreams help us sort out the day's events and consolidate memories.
Activation-synthesis theory: Dreams are the brain's attempt to make sense of random neural activity.
REM Rebound: The tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation.
Sleep Deprivation: Leads to fatigue, impaired concentration, depressed immune system, greater vulnerability to accidents.
Positive correlation for hours students sleep and grades.
Sleep Disorders
Insomnia: Persistent problems in falling or staying asleep.
Narcolepsy: Uncontrollable sleep attacks, often lapsing directly into REM sleep.
Sleep Apnea: Temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings.
Night Terrors: High arousal and appearance of being terrified; occur during NREM-3 sleep, seldom remembered.
Hypnosis
Hypnosis: A social interaction in which one person suggests to another that certain perceptions, feelings, thoughts, or behaviors will spontaneously occur. Lacks strong empirical support for many claims.
Psychoactive Drugs
Tolerance: Diminishing effect with regular use of the same dose of a drug, requiring larger doses to achieve the desired effect.
Withdrawal: The discomfort and distress that follow discontinuing an addictive drug or behavior (e.g., anxiety).
Stimulants: Drugs that excite neural activity and speed up body functions (e.g., cocaine, caffeine, meth).
Depressants: Drugs that reduce neural activity and slow body functions (e.g., alcohol, reduced inhibition/self-awareness).
Unit 6: Learning
Habituation
Habituation: Decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation.
Associative Learning
Associative Learning: Learning that certain events occur together.
Classical Conditioning (Ivan Pavlov, John Watson)
Classical Conditioning: Learning to associate two stimuli and thus to anticipate events.
Neutral Stimulus (NS): A stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning.
Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): A stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response.
Unconditioned Response (UCR): The unlearned, naturally occurring response to the UCS.
Conditioned Stimulus (CS): An originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an UCS, comes to trigger a CR.
Conditioned Response (CR): The learned response to a previously neutral (now conditioned) stimulus.
Acquisition: The initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. Timing (right before the UCS) is crucial.
Extinction: The diminishing of a conditioned response.
Spontaneous Recovery: The reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response.
Generalization: The tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses.
Discrimination: The learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus.
Respondent Behavior: Behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus.
Operant Conditioning (B.F. Skinner, Edward Thorndike)
Operant Conditioning: A type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher.
Thorndike's Law of Effect: Behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely.
Shaping Behavior: Guiding behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior.
Reinforcement: Any event that strengthens the behavior it follows.
Positive Reinforcement (+): Increasing behaviors by presenting positive reinforcers (e.g., giving a treat).
Negative Reinforcement (-): Increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli (e.g., taking away chores).
Primary Reinforcer: An innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need (e.g., food, water).
Secondary (Conditioned) Reinforcer: A stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through association with a primary reinforcer (e.g., money).
Delayed Reinforcer: A reinforcer that is not immediately presented after the desired behavior.
Punishment: An event that decreases the behavior that it follows.
Positive Punishment (+): Administering an aversive stimulus (e.g., a parking ticket).
Negative Punishment (-): Withdrawing a desirable stimulus (e.g., taking away privileges).
Reinforcement Schedules:
Continuous Reinforcement: Reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs.
Partial (Intermittent) Reinforcement: Reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition but greater resistance to extinction.
Fixed-Ratio (FR): Reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses.
Variable-Ratio (VR): Reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses.
Fixed-Interval (FI): Reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed.
Variable-Interval (VI): Reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals.
Superstition and Conditioning: Accidental reinforcement can lead to superstitious behaviors.
Operant Behavior: Behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences.
Cognitive Learning
Cognitive Learning: The acquisition of mental information, whether by observing events, by watching others, or through language.
Instinctive Drift: The tendency of learned behavior to gradually revert to biologically predisposed patterns.
Biological Predisposition: Organisms are naturally inclined to learn certain associations more easily than others.
Cognitive Map: A mental representation of the layout of one's environment.
Latent Learning: Learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it.
Intrinsic Motivation: A desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake (most creative).
Extrinsic Motivation: A desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment.
Internal Locus of Control: The perception that you control your own fate.
External Locus of Control: The perception that chance or outside forces beyond your personal control determine your fate.
Learned Helplessness: The hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events.
Observational Learning (Albert Bandura)
Observational Learning: Learning by observing others.
Modeling: The process of observing and imitating a specific behavior.
Mirror Neurons: Frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so; may enable imitation and empathy.
Unit 7: Memory and Cognition
Memory
Memory: The persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information.
Encoding: Getting information into the memory system.
Storage: Retaining encoded information over time.
Retrieval: Getting information out of memory storage.
Recall: Retrieving information not currently in your conscious awareness but that was learned earlier (e.g., fill-in-the-blank).
Recognition: Identifying items previously learned (e.g., multiple-choice).
Memory Stages (Atkinson-Shiffrin Model):
Sensory Memory: The immediate, very brief recording of sensory information.
Iconic Memory: A momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second.
Echoic Memory: A momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds.
Short-Term Memory (STM)/Working Memory: Activated memory that holds a few items briefly (e.g., 7 +/- 2 pieces of info - George Miller) before the information is stored or forgotten. Limited in capacity.
Working Memory: A newer understanding of STM that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory. Includes a phonological loop.
Long-Term Memory (LTM): The relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system.
Types of Long-Term Memory:
Explicit (Declarative) Memory: Memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare." (Effortful processing).
Hippocampus: Neural center in the limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage.
Implicit (Nondeclarative) Memory: Retention independent of conscious recollection. (Automatic processing - space, time, frequency, events of the day).
Cerebellum: Plays a key role in forming and storing implicit memories created by classical conditioning.
Procedural Memory: Automatic processing of how to do things (e.g., riding a bike, playing an instrument).
Encoding Strategies:
Spacing Effect: The tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice.
Testing Effect: Enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information.
Mnemonic Devices: Memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices.
Chunking: Organizing items into familiar, manageable units.
Hierarchy: Organizing information into broad concepts divided into narrower concepts and facts.
Semantic Encoding: Encoding of meaning, especially the meaning of words.
Self-Reference Effect: Tendency to better remember information relevant to oneself.
Retrieval Cues:
Priming: The activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory.
State-Dependent Learning: What we learn in one state (e.g., drunk or sober) may be more easily recalled when we are again in that state.
Mood-Congruent Memory: The tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood.
Memory Phenomena:
Flashbulb Memory: A clear, sustained memory of an emotionally significant moment or event.
Serial Position Effect: Our tendency to recall best the last (recency effect) and first (primacy effect) items in a list.
Ebbinghaus Forgetting Curve: The course of forgetting is initially rapid, then levels off with time.
Amnesia:
Anterograde Amnesia (H.M.): An inability to form new memories.
Retrograde Amnesia: An inability to retrieve information from one's past.
Forgetting:
Failure in Encoding: Information never enters long-term memory.
Failure in Storage: Memory decay over time.
Failure in Retrieval: Inability to access stored information.
Interference:
Proactive Interference: The disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information.
Retroactive Interference: The disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information.
Repression (Freud): A defense mechanism that banishes anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories from consciousness.
Memory Construction Errors:
Misinformation Effect (Loftus - car accident study): Incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event.
Source Amnesia: Attributing to the wrong source an event we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined.
Cognition
Cognition: All the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating.
Concept: A mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people.
Prototype: A mental image or best example of a category.
Problem Solving:
Algorithm: A methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem.
Heuristic: A simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently; usually faster but more error-prone.
Insight: A sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem.
Confirmation Bias: A tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence.
Fixation: An inability to see a problem from a fresh perspective.
Mental Set: A tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past.
Functional Fixedness: The tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions.
Decision Making:
Availability Heuristic: Estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory.
Representative Heuristic: Judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes.
Overconfidence: The tendency to be more confident than correct.
Belief Perseverance: Clinging to one's initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited.
Framing Effect: The way an issue is posed can significantly affect decisions and judgments.
Creativity:
Convergent Thinking: Narrows the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution.
Divergent Thinking: Expands the number of possible problem solutions (creative thinking that diverges in different directions).
Motivation and Creativity:
Intrinsic Motivation: (Most creative)
Extrinsic Motivation:
Language:
Phoneme: The smallest distinctive sound unit.
Morpheme: The smallest unit that carries meaning; may be a word or a part of a word (e.g., prefix or suffix).
Grammar: A system of rules that enables us to communicate with and understand others.
Semantics: The set of rules for deriving meaning from sounds.
Syntax: The set of rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences.
Overgeneralized Rules of Grammar: Applying grammar rules too broadly (e.g., "goed" instead of "went").
Universal Grammar (Noam Chomsky): Proposes that all human languages share a common underlying grammatical structure.
Linguistic Determinism (Benjamin Whorf): Whorf's hypothesis that language determines the way we think.
Critical Period of Development: A period early in life when exposure to certain stimuli or experiences is needed for proper development (e.g., language acquisition - The case of Genie).
Babbling: Spontaneous utterance of various sounds by infants.
Unit 8: Motivation and Emotion
Theories of Motivation
Evolutionary/Instinct Theory: Focuses on genetically predisposed behaviors.
Drive-Reduction Theory: The idea that a physiological need creates an aroused tension state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need.
Homeostasis: A tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state.
Arousal Theory: Focuses on finding the right level of stimulation.
Yerkes-Dodson Law: The principle that performance increases with arousal only up to a point, beyond which performance decreases.
Hierarchy of Needs (Abraham Maslow): Proposes that human needs form a pyramid, with physiological needs at the base and self-actualization at the peak.
Hunger and Eating
Set-Point Theory: The point at which an individual's "weight thermostat" is supposedly set. When the body falls below this weight, an increase in hunger and a lowered metabolic rate may act to restore the lost weight.
Settling Point: A more flexible term, indicating the level at which a person's weight settles in response to caloric intake and expenditure.
Basal Metabolic Rate: The body's resting rate of energy expenditure.
Hypothalamus: Regulates hunger and satiety.
Stomach/Ghrelin: Hormone secreted by an empty stomach; sends "I'm hungry" signals to the brain.
Pancreas/Insulin: Hormone that controls blood glucose.
Leptin: Protein hormone secreted by fat cells; when abundant, causes brain to increase metabolism and decrease hunger.
Semi-starvation experiment: Demonstrated the powerful psychological and physiological effects of prolonged hunger.
Social Facilitation: The presence of others can amplify our natural behavior tendencies, including eating more.
Important Facts to Memorize
Wilhelm Wundt: First psychology lab, reaction time.
Edward Titchner: Structuralism, introspection.
Plato/Socrates: Mind-body separate.
Aristotle: Experience, not innate, empiricism.
Locke/Bacon: Modern Empiricism.
Darwin/William James: Functionalism.
Mary Calkins: Denied Ph.D., 1st female APA president.
Margaret Washburn: 1st female Ph.D. in Psych.
Dorothea Dix: Mental health reform.
BF Skinner/John Watson: Behaviorism, observable behavior.
Freud: Psychoanalytic, unconscious.
Hindsight Bias: "I knew it all along."
Hypothesis: Testable prediction.
Theory: Organizes observations, predicts.
Operational Definition: Precise procedures.
Random Sample: Representative population.
Correlation Coefficient: Direction and strength.
Correlation ≠ Causation.
Experiment: Manipulate variable, cause/effect.
Random Assignment: Controls confounding variables.
Independent Variable (IV): Manipulated.
Dependent Variable (DV): Measured outcome.
Placebo: Inert substance.
Validity: Measures what it's supposed to.
Informed Consent, Protection from Harm, Confidentiality, Debriefing: Ethical guidelines.
Mean, Median, Mode: Measures of central tendency.
Range, Standard Deviation: Measures of variation.
Statistical Significance: <5% chance by chance.
Replication: Repeat study.
Neurons: Dendrites (receive), Axon (send), Myelin sheath (speed), Terminal buttons (release).
Neurotransmitters: ACH, Dopamine, Serotonin, Norepinephrine, GABA, Glutamate, Endorphins.
Agonist: Speeds up.
Antagonist: Blocks.
All-or-nothing response: Neuron firing.
CNS: Brain, spinal cord.
PNS: Somatic, Autonomic (Sympathetic/Parasympathetic).
Pituitary Gland: Growth hormone, controlled by hypothalamus.
Adrenal Glands: Adrenaline/epinephrine.
Medulla: Heartbeat, breathing.
Amygdala: Emotion (fear, aggression).
Cerebellum: Balance, coordination, implicit memory.
Pons: Sleep, movement coordination.
Thalamus: Sensory relay station.
Hypothalamus: Drives (hunger, thirst, temp), pituitary.
Frontal Lobe: Planning, judgment, speaking, motor cortex.
Parietal Lobe: Touch, body position, somatosensory cortex.
Occipital Lobe: Vision.
Temporal Lobe: Auditory.
Wernicke's Area: Language understanding.
Broca's Area: Speech production.
Corpus Callosum: Connects hemispheres.
Split Brain: Severed corpus callosum.
Identical Twins: Genetically identical.
Heritability: Genetic differences in a group.
Epigenetics: Environment affects gene expression.
Stroboscopic Movement: Rapid images = continuous motion.
Phi Phenomenon: Blinking lights = movement.
Circadian Rhythm: 24-hour cycle.
NREM-3: Deep sleep, delta waves, memory.
REM Sleep: Dreaming, paradoxical sleep.
Sleep Deprivation: Impaired immunity, concentration.
Tolerance: Need more drug for effect.
Withdrawal: Discomfort from stopping drug.
Stimulants: Speed up body functions.
Depressants: Slow down body functions.
Habituation: Decreased response to repeated stimulus.
Classical Conditioning: Pavlov, Watson, UCS, UCR, CS, CR.
Acquisition: Learning association.
Operant Conditioning: Skinner, Thorndike, reinforcement, punishment.
Law of Effect: Behaviors followed by good consequences repeat.
Positive Reinforcement: Add desirable.
Negative Reinforcement: Remove undesirable.
Positive Punishment: Add aversive.
Negative Punishment: Remove desirable.
Continuous Reinforcement: Every time.
Partial Reinforcement: Intermittent, stronger.
Fixed/Variable Ratio/Interval: Schedules of reinforcement.
Latent Learning: Learning not immediately apparent.
Intrinsic Motivation: For its own sake.
Extrinsic Motivation: For reward/avoid punishment.
Learned Helplessness: Hopelessness from unavoidable events.
Observational Learning: Bandura, modeling.
Mirror Neurons: Imitation, empathy.
Encoding, Storage, Retrieval: Memory processes.
Recall vs. Recognition: Retrieval types.
Sensory, Short-Term/Working, Long-Term: Memory stages.
George Miller: 7 +/- 2 items in STM.
Explicit Memory: Conscious facts, hippocampus.
Implicit Memory: Unconscious skills, cerebellum.
Spacing Effect, Testing Effect: Better retention.
Mnemonic Devices, Chunking, Hierarchy: Encoding aids.
Semantic Encoding: Encoding meaning.
Priming, State-Dependent, Mood-Congruent: Retrieval cues.
Flashbulb Memory: Vivid emotional memory.
Serial Position Effect: Remember first/last items.
Ebbinghaus Forgetting Curve: Rapid then slows.
Anterograde Amnesia: Can't form new memories.
Retrograde Amnesia: Can't recall past memories.
Proactive Interference: Old blocks new.
Retroactive Interference: New blocks old.
Misinformation Effect: Loftus, distorted memories.
Source Amnesia: Forgetting source of info.
Algorithm: Step-by-step solution.
Heuristic: Shortcut, error-prone.
Insight: Sudden realization.
Confirmation Bias: Seek confirming evidence.
Fixation/Mental Set: Stuck on old solutions.
Functional Fixedness: Only usual function.
Availability Heuristic: Based on ease of recall.
Representative Heuristic: Based on prototypes.
Overconfidence: More confident than correct.
Framing Effect: Wording affects decisions.
Convergent Thinking: Single best solution.
Divergent Thinking: Multiple solutions.
Phoneme: Smallest sound unit.
Morpheme: Smallest meaning unit.
Grammar, Semantics, Syntax: Language rules.
Chomsky: Universal grammar.
Whorf: Linguistic determinism.
Critical Period: Language acquisition window.
Drive-Reduction Theory: Need creates drive.
Homeostasis: Internal balance.
Yerkes-Dodson Law: Optimal arousal for performance.
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs: Pyramid of needs.
Set-Point Theory: Weight thermostat.
Hypothalamus: Hunger/satiety.
Ghrelin: Hunger hormone.
Leptin: Satiety hormone.
Unit 9: Development
DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY
Stability vs. Change
Stability = things that stay the same (personality)
Change = things that develop over time (skills, behavior)
Continuity vs. Stages
Continuity = gradual, smooth development
Stages = sudden changes in steps (like Piaget)
Macrosystem
Culture, values, laws, society influence you
INFANT DEVELOPMENT
Reflexes
Rooting = baby turns head to find food
Grasping = baby grabs objects
Habituation
Getting used to something and responding less
Maturation
Biological growth (walking, talking when body is ready)
COGNITIVE TERMS
Schema
Mental framework (how you organize info)
Assimilation
Fit new info into existing schema
Accommodation
Change schema to fit new info
ATTACHMENT
Mary Ainsworth
Secure = trusts caregiver
Insecure = anxious or avoidant
Temperament
Natural personality (easy, difficult, slow-to-warm-up)
Konrad Lorenz
Studied imprinting (baby animals attach early)
Mere exposure
We like things we see often
Sensitive period
Critical time to learn certain skills
Harry Harlow
Showed comfort > food (babies need contact)
Body contact
Physical touch is important for bonding
Imprinting
Early attachment to first moving thing
Jean Piaget
Sensorimotor (0–2)
Learn through senses
Object permanence = things exist when unseen
Preoperational (2–7)
Egocentric (can’t see others’ views)
Theory of mind develops
Concrete (7–11)
Conservation = amount stays same even if shape changes
Formal (12+)
Abstract thinking (ideas, future)
PARENTING STYLES
Authoritarian
Strict, no discussion
Authoritative
Strict but caring (best style)
Permissive
Lenient, few rules
Negligent
Uninvolved
Gender identity
How you see your gender
Gender roles
Society’s expectations
Lawrence Kohlberg
Pre-conventional
Avoid punishment / seek rewards
Conventional
Follow rules, want approval
Post-conventional
Personal morals and ethics
SEXUAL DEVELOPMENT
Puberty
Body changes to become adult
Menarche
First menstrual cycle
Primary sex characteristics
Directly related to reproduction
Secondary sex characteristics
Physical traits (voice, hair, etc.)
Erik Erikson
Trust (baby trusts caregivers)
Autonomy (independence)
Initiative (take action)
Industry (work hard, feel competent)
Identity vs. Role Confusion (teen years)
Intimacy (relationships)
Generativity (help next generation)
Integrity (look back on life)
Critique by Carol Gilligan
Said Kohlberg ignored female perspectives
OTHER TERMS
Death-deferral phenomenon
People try to live until after big events/holidays
Social clock
Expected timeline for life events (marriage, career)
Cross-sectional study
Compare different ages at one time
Longitudinal study
Study same people over time
LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT
If a child doesn’t learn language early, they may never fully learn it
Because unused brain connections get pruned (lost)
Unit 10: Personality: ID, Ego, Superego
DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY
Stability vs. Change- What parts of development are gradual and continuous and what parts change abruptly in
separate stages?
Macrosystem- social and cultural values
Continuity vs. Stages-Which of our traits persist through life? How do we change as we age?
Reflexes: Rooting, Grasping
Habituation
Maturation
Schema
Assimilation
Accommodation
ATTACHMENT
Mary Ainsworth- Secure and Insecure attachment
Temperament
Conrad Lorenz (Goose Man)
Mere exposure
Sensitive period of development
Harry Harlow (Harlow’s Monkey)
Body contact
Imprinting
JEAN PIAGET- COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
(Some People Can Fly)
Sensorimotor- object permanence
Preoperational- egocentric, theory of mind
Concrete- conservation
Formal- abstract
PARENTING STYLES AND GENDER
Authoritarian
Authoritative
Permissive
Negligent
Gender Identity
Roles
KOHLBERG – MORAL DEVELOPMENT
Pre-conventional
Conventional
Post-conventional
SEXUAL DEVELOPMENT
Puberty: Menarche
Primary and Secondary sex characteristics
ERICKSON- PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
Basic trust
Autonomy
Initiative
Industry
Identity vs. Role confusion
Intimacy
Generativity
Integrity
Critique by Carol Gilligan
OTHER STUFF
Death-deferral phenomenon
Social clock
Cross-sectional study
Longitudinal study
Lacking any exposure to language before adolescence, a person will never master any
language due to the pruning of unemployed neural connections
Unit 12: disorders
Module 65: Introduction to Psychological Disorders
Required Reading: pp. 666–675
1. What Is a Psychological Disorder?
Psychological Disorder:
A syndrome marked by a clinically significant disturbance in:
Cognition (thinking)
Emotion regulation
Behavior
These disturbances interfere with everyday life.
2. Historical Views of Mental Illness
Early Explanations
Stone Age: Trephining – drilling holes in skulls to release evil spirits.
Middle Ages: Mental illness believed to be caused by the Devil → harsh treatments to “drive out demons.”
Shift Over Time
By the 1800s, researchers searched for physical causes.
Hospitals replaced asylums, leading to more humane treatment.
3. Medical Model
Psychological disorders are viewed as diseases with physical causes.
Can be:
Diagnosed
Treated
Sometimes cured
Focus on treatment through medical care.
4. Biopsychosocial Approach
Mental illness is influenced by:
Biological factors (genes, brain chemistry)
Psychological factors (stress, coping skills)
Social-cultural factors (environment, culture, support systems)
Stress–Vulnerability (Diathesis-Stress) Model
Genetic predispositions + environmental stressors
Together they increase or decrease the likelihood of developing a disorder.
5. Epigenetics
The study of environmental influences on gene expression that do not change DNA.
A gene may be:
Expressed in one environment
Dormant in another
6. Why Classify Disorders?
Classification helps psychologists:
Predict the future course of a disorder
Suggest appropriate treatments
Discover causes
7. DSM-5 (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders)
The DSM-5 is the main system used to classify psychological disorders.
Provides diagnostic criteria for mental health professionals.
Key Changes in DSM-5
Autism & Asperger’s → Autism Spectrum Disorder
Mental retardation → Intellectual Disability
Added disorders:
Hoarding disorder
Binge-eating disorder
Criticisms of the DSM
Over-labeling normal behaviors or reactions
May medicalize everyday feelings
Severe grief may now be classified as depression
Benefits of Diagnosis
Can be a relief
Leads to treatment and improved functioning
8. Labeling & Its Effects
Labels can change how others view and treat a person.
Can become self-fulfilling.
Rosenhan Study
David Rosenhan and students pretended to hear voices.
All were misdiagnosed despite behaving normally afterward.
Stigma
People labeled “mentally ill” may be feared as violent.
Reality:
Most people with mental illness are not violent
Most violent criminals are not mentally ill
Understanding mental illness as brain-based reduces stigma.
9. ADHD (Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder)
Symptoms
Inattention
Distractibility
Hyperactivity
Impulsivity
Pros of Broader Criteria
Increased awareness
ADHD is a real neurobiological disorder
Linked to:
Abnormal brain structure
Brain activity patterns
Risky or antisocial behavior later
Cons
Overdiagnosis risk
Normal energetic behavior may be labeled ADHD
Concerns about long-term medication effects
10. How Common Are Psychological Disorders?
Nearly 1 in 5 U.S. adults currently has a mental, behavioral, or emotional disorder.
Poverty is a major risk factor:
Rates are 2.5 times higher below the poverty line.
Higher diagnosis rates in the U.S. may reflect:
Greater awareness
Access to mental health services
Module 66: Anxiety Disorders, OCD, and PTSD
Required Reading: pp. 677–684
1. Anxiety Disorders
Characterized by distressing, persistent anxiety.
Types of Anxiety Disorders
Social Anxiety Disorder
Intense fear of social situations
Symptoms:
Sweating
Trembling
Avoidance of social events
Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD)
Chronic, excessive, uncontrollable worry (6+ months)
Constant tension and arousal
Often linked with depression
Panic Disorder
Sudden panic attacks (minutes-long)
Symptoms resemble heart attacks
May lead to:
Avoidance behaviors
Agoraphobia (fear of public places)
Phobias
Persistent, irrational fear of:
Objects
Activities
Situations
Common phobias: animals, heights, blood, enclosed spaces
2. Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD)
Obsessions: unwanted repetitive thoughts
Compulsions: repetitive actions
Becomes a disorder when it interferes with daily life
Related Disorders (DSM-5)
Hoarding disorder
Body dysmorphic disorder
Trichotillomania (hair pulling)
Excoriation disorder (skin picking)
3. Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)
Develops after traumatic events
Symptoms lasting 4+ weeks:
Nightmares
Hypervigilance
Social withdrawal
Insomnia
Emotional numbness
Key Facts
Only 5–10% of people exposed to trauma develop PTSD
Greater trauma → higher risk
Women are twice as likely as men
Some people have more sensitive limbic systems
4. Learning & Anxiety
Classical Conditioning
Stimulus generalization: fear spreads to similar stimuli
Example: Dog bite → fear of all dogs
Operant Conditioning
Reinforcement maintains anxiety behaviors
Example: Hand washing reduces anxiety → repeated behavior
5. Cognition & Anxiety
Thoughts, interpretations, and expectations influence anxiety.
Past experiences shape emotional responses.
Genetics & the Brain
Anxiety and OCD linked to specific genes
Identical twins show higher risk
Neurotransmitters involved:
Serotonin: mood, sleep, threat attention
Glutamate: activates brain alarm centers
Fear circuits form in the amygdala
OCD Brain Activity
Increased activity in the anterior cingulate cortex
This region monitors errors and actions
6. Evolutionary Perspective
Some fears are biologically prepared
Common fears:
Snakes
Spiders
Heights
Darkness
These fears helped ancestors survive → passed down through natural selection
Unit 13
Unit 14
Self-serving bias – Taking credit for success, blaming outside factors for failure
Cognitive dissonance – Discomfort from holding conflicting beliefs or actions
Groupthink – Group makes bad decisions to maintain harmony
Altruism – Helping others with no expectation of reward
Bystander effect – Less likely to help when others are around
Conformity (single dissenter) – Having one person disagree makes others more likely to resist
Informational social influence – Conforming because you think others are right
Mere-exposure effect – Liking something more the more you see it
Attribution theory – Explaining behavior by internal or external causes
Internal vs. External –
Internal: personality/traits
External: situation/environment
Correlational coefficients – Measure strength/direction of relationship (-1 to +1)
Positive vs. Negative correlation –
Positive: both variables increase/decrease together
Negative: one increases, the other decreases
Fundamental attribution error – Overestimating personality, underestimating situation
Foot-in-the-door – Small request → bigger request
Self-fulfilling prophecy – Expectations cause behavior that makes them come true
Central route persuasion – Logic and facts
Peripheral route persuasion – Emotions or superficial cues
Door-in-the-face – Large request refused → smaller request accepted
Conformity (friends) – Changing behavior to match peers
Group polarization – Group opinions become more extreme
Deindividuation – Losing self-awareness in a group
Just-world hypothesis – Belief that people get what they deserve
Cultural norms – Shared rules/expectations of behavior
Outgroup homogeneity bias – Seeing other groups as all the same
Diffusion of responsibility – Responsibility is spread across group
False-consensus effect – Believing others agree with you more than they do
Social facilitation – Better performance when others are watching (simple tasks)
Zimbardo (roles) – Roles + situation strongly influence behavior
Social reciprocity norm – Expectation to return favors
Stereotype – Generalized belief about a group
Friendships – Form based on looks, closeness (proximity), and similarity
Social loafing – Putting in less effort in a group
Collectivism – Prioritizing group over individual
Normative social influence – Conforming to fit in/avoid rejection
Superordinate goals – Shared goals that require cooperation even in conflict
Out-group homogeneity bias – Same as above (others seen as alike)
Actor-observer bias –
Your behavior = situation
Others’ behavior = personality
Halo effect – One positive trait influences overall impression
Milgram experiment – People obey authority; seeing others refuse increases disobedience