Intro to Psychology Areas and Applications - Chapter 11: Human Development Across the Life Span

Germinal stage

The first 2 weeks after conception involving the zygote, implantation, and the formation of the placenta.

Placenta

A structure that allows oxygen and nutrients to pass into the fetus from the mother’s bloodstream, and bodily wastes to pass out to the mother.

Embryonic stage

A period spanning 2 weeks until the end of the month, characterized by the formation of vital organs, bodily systems, and other body parts

e.g Heart, spine, brain, fingers, toes

Embryonic stage (con’t)

Most miscarriages occur during this stage due to the immense vulnerability

Fetal stage

The period from 2 months until birth where bodily growth continues, movement capability begins, skeletal structure hardens, sex organs develop, and brain cells multiply.

Age of viability

The age at which a fetus can survive outside the womb, occurring during the fetal stage.

Threshold of viability

The age at which a baby can survive in the event of a premature birth.

Teratogens

External agents that can harm an embryo or fetus

e.g. Drugs or viruses

Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)

A condition of congenital (inborn) problems caused by excessive maternal drug use, specifically alcohol, during prenatal development.

How many Canadian babies are born with Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)

About 9 babies out of every 1000 are born with FASD and about 300 000 Canadians are currently living with FASD

How many babies are born addicted to opioids due to their mom’s drug abuse?

21,000 babies in North America are born addicted to opioids each year

Stress and emotion

Maternal emotions in reaction to stressful events can have an impact on prenatal development

e.g. Elevated levels of prenatal stress are associated with increased stillbirths, heightened vulnerability to infectious disease, etc

Maternal illness

Many maternal illnesses can interfere with prenatal development via transmission through the placenta

e.g. Diseases such as measles, rubella (German measles), syphilis, and chickenpox can be hazardous to the fetus

Environmental toxins

Things like air pollution, which has been linked to impairments in cognitive development at age five, increased obesity at age seven, and deficits in social competence and self-regulation in middle childhood

Fetal Origins of Adult Disease

Events during prenatal development can “program” the fetal brain in ways that influence the person’s vulnerability to various types of illness decades later

e.g. Prenatal malnutrition has been linked to vulnerability to schizophrenia, which usually emerges in late adolescence or early adulthood

Maturation

The gradual unfolding of a genetic blueprint in an organism's development.

Maturation and alcohol

Early maturation is associated with greater use of tobacco, alcohol, and other drugs; more high-risk behaviour; greater aggression; and more trouble with the law

Adolescence

A transitional period between childhood and adulthood beginning at the age of 13 and ending at the age of 22

Adolescence (con’t)

It’s not universal across cultures

i.e. In some cultures, young people move directly from childhood to adulthood

Adolescence (III)

It’s a critical time for the development of important physical and psychological attributes, a sense of identity, and thinking about other people

Adolescent growth spurt

A phase of rapid growth in height and weight starting around the ages of age 9–10 in girls and 10–12 in boys

Secondary sex characteristics

Physical features that distinguish one sex from the other but that are not essential for reproduction

e.g. Facial hair and broader shoulders in males, and breast growth and wider hips in females

Puberty

The stage during which sexual functions reach maturity, which marks the beginning of adolescence

Primary sex characteristics

The structures necessary for reproduction during puberty

Primary sex characteristics (con’t)

• In males, these include the testes, penis, and related internal structures.

• Primary sex characteristics in the female include the ovaries, vagina, uterus, and other internal structures

Menarche

The first occurrence of menstruation in females, which reflects the culmination of a series of hormonal changes

Menarche (con’t)

Females reach this stage around the ages of 12-13

Spermarche

The first ejaculation occurrence at the ages of 13-14

Timing of puberty

The timing of puberty varies from one adolescent to the next.

Timing of puberty (con’t)

Girls who mature early and boys who mature late seem to experience more subjective distress with the transition to adolescence

The changes of white matter and what they suggests

The increase in white matter suggests neurons are becoming more myelinated, leading to enhanced connectivity in the brain

The changes of gray and what they suggests

The decrease in grey matter is thought to reflect synaptic pruning, which plays a key role in the formation of neural networks

Developmental norms

The median age at which infants and children achieve various abilities or milestones.

Temperament

A characteristic mood, activity level, and emotional reactivity of an infant.

Easy temperament style

A temperamental style found in $40\%$ of babies in the study by Thomas, Chess, and Birch (1970).

Slow-to-warm-up temperament style

A temperamental style found in $15\%$ of babies in the study by Thomas, Chess, and Birch (1970).

Difficult temperament style

A temperamental style found in $10\%$ of babies in the study by Thomas, Chess, and Birch (1970).

Inhibited temperament

A temperament style found in $15-20\%$ of babies, characterized by shyness and stability over time, according to Kagan & Snidman (1991).

Longitudinal study

A research design where the same group of children is observed at different ages over time.

Cross-sectional study

A research design where different groups of children of various ages are compared simultaneously.

Attachment

The close emotional bonds of affection that develop between infants and their caregivers.

Separation anxiety

Emotional distress shown by infants when they are separated from people with whom they have formed an attachment.

Secure attachment

An attachment category where the child tends to be playful, less inhibited, and exploration-oriented when the caregiver is responsive.

Anxious-ambivalent attachment

An attachment style where the child tends to engage in visual checking, signaling, pleading, and clinging to re-establish contact.

Avoidant attachment

An attachment style where the child tends to maintain proximity while avoiding close contact.

Psychosocial crises

The eight fundamental questions or challenges (e.g., "Who am I and where am I going?") that determine the balance between opposing polarities in Erik Erikson's personality theory.

Cognitive development

Transitions in patterns of thinking, such as reasoning and problem-solving, as studied by Jean Piaget.

Object permanence

A major milestone of the sensorimotor stage where a child recognizes that objects continue to exist even when not visible.

Centration

A tendency in the preoperational period of cognitive development to focus on just one feature of a problem while neglecting others.

Conservation

The recognition that physical quantities (e.g., number, mass, length) remain constant despite changes in shape or appearance, mastered during the concrete operational period.

Zone of proximal development

A concept from Vygotsky's sociocultural theory representing the gap between what a learner can do without help and what they can do with support.

Scaffolding

A teaching method in Vygotsky's theory where the level of assistance is decreased as the child's competence increases.

Preconventional level

Kohlberg's first level of moral reasoning where right and wrong are determined by what is punished (Stage 1) or rewarded (Stage 2).

Conventional level

Kohlberg's second level of moral reasoning where right and wrong are determined by close others' approval (Stage 3) or society's rules and laws (Stage 4).

Postconventional level

Kohlberg's highest level of moral reasoning where right and wrong are determined by fallible social contracts (Stage 5) or abstract ethical principles like equity and justice (Stage 6).

Menarche

The first occurrence of menstruation, marking a physiological change in the transition to adolescence.

Prefrontal cortex (PFC)

The executive control center for cognitive development and emotion regulation that is the last part of the brain to fully mature in the mid-20s.

Prefrontal cortex (PFC) [con’t]

The immaturity of the prefrontal cortex may explain why risky behaviour peaks during adolescence and then declines in adulthood

e.g. Reckless driving, experimentation with drugs, dangerous stunts, unprotected sex, and so forth

Risk-taking and rewards

Adolescents exhibit heightened sensitivity to various types of rewards attributed to relatively early maturation of the subcortical dopamine circuits that mediate the experience of pleasure

e.g. The pleasures associated with tasty foods, financial payoffs, psychoactive drugs, and thrilling adventures

Risk-taking and rewards (con’t)

Adolescent risk-taking is fuelled by a mismatch in the maturation of subcortical reward centres in relation to the prefrontal areas underlying cognitive control

Risk-taking and rewards (con’t)

1. The extent of risk-taking in adolescence has been overestimated,

2. Excessive risk-taking is mostly confined to a small subset of adolescents,

3. The neural correlates of adolescent risk-taking are vastly more complicated than those outlined by the imbalance model, and

4. Risk-taking in adolescence also depends on environmental factors and is not largely a function of neural development.

Stanley Hall’s take on adolescence

The adolescent years are characterized by convulsive instability and disturbing inner turmoil due to erratic physical changes and resultant confusion about self-image

Depression rates in adolescents

Depression rates were as high as 20%

Adolescence and identity

The premier challenge of adolescence is the struggle to form a clear sense of identity, according to Erik Erikson

i.e. “Who am I, and where am I going in life?”

Adolescence and identity (con’t)

Identity confusion is associated with an increased risk for substance abuse, unprotected sexual activity, anxiety, low self-worth, and eating disorders

Identity foreclosure

One of James Marcia's four identity statuses, involving an unquestioning adoption of parental or societal values.

Identity moratorium

An identity status where an individual is actively struggling for a sense of identity and delaying commitment for a while to experiment with alternative ideologies and careers

Identity diffusion

An identity status characterized by the absence of struggle for identity and no obvious concern about it.

Identity achievement

The achievement of a sense of identity through exploration and commitment, but tends to be reached at later stages

Identity achievement (con’t)

It’s associated with higher self-esteem, conscientiousness, security, achievement motivation, and capacity for intimacy

Emerging adulthood

The years between the ages of 18 and 25 being a distinct, new transitional stage of life.

Reasons for emerging adulthood

Has been attributed to the number of people delaying marriage and parenthood until their late 20s or early 30s, lengthier participation in higher education, increased barriers to financial independence, etc

Emerging adulthood features

1. People feel as though they are neither adolescents nor adults

2. Optimism about the future

3. It’s a self-focused time of life

4. It’s a period of instability and change as struggles with identity issues continue

Criticisms about emerging adulthood

Critics argue that the concept is only applicable to White, middle- and upper-class college students, and not to poor, working-class individuals

Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs)

Potentially traumatic events occurring in childhood ($0-17$ years) that can harm developing brains, change stress responses, and damage immune systems, often leading to chronic disease and mental illness.

CDC-Kaiser Adverse Childhood Experiences Study

An important public health study that discovered childhood trauma leads to the adult onset of chronic diseases, mental illness, violence, and financial or social problems.

Expanded ACEs

Traumatic experiences beyond the original ten factors, including racism, gender discrimination, witnessing violence outside the home, bullying, and involvement with the foster care system.

Harlow's Monkey Experiments

A series of experiments demonstrating that infant monkeys' attachment is driven by contact comfort and emotional connection rather than just the provision of food.

Contact Comfort

Soft, tactile interaction and emotional connection that Harlow identified as a primary driver of attachment in infant monkeys.

Attachment

A deep and enduring emotional bond that connects one person to another across time and space, first defined by researchers like Bowlby and Ainsworth in a $1956$ follow-up study.

Attachment Theory

Developed by John Bowlby in the $1940\text{s}$, it describes a lasting psychological connectedness between humans, emphasizing the need for a close relationship with at least one primary caregiver.

Evolutionary Function of Attachment

The biological preparation of social animals to form bonds to promote survival by keeping vulnerable infants close to caregivers who provide protection and support.

Internal Working Models

Cognitive-affective schemas consisting of mental representations of the self as worthy/unworthy of care and others as reliable/unreliable sources of support.

Adult Attachment Styles

The application of attachment theory to adult relationships, including friendships and romantic partnerships, as explored by psychologists like Sue Johnson, Cindy Hazan, and Phillip Shaver in the $1980\text{s}$.

Strange Situation

A procedure developed by Mary Ainsworth to determine attachment behaviors and styles in $1$ to $2$ year-olds when separated from their mothers.

Secure Attachment

An attachment style characterized by feeling confident in relationships, comfortable with independence, and having a positive view of oneself and others.

Anxious Preoccupied Attachment

A style where individuals seek constant and high levels of intimacy and approval, often becoming overly dependent and doubting their own worth.

Anxious (Fearful) Avoidant Attachment

A style where individuals want closeness but find it difficult to trust or depend on others due to fears of being hurt, often resulting from childhood trauma.

Dismissive Avoidant Attachment

An attachment style characterized by a lack of comfort with emotional intimacy, a high value on self-sufficiency, and the suppression of feelings to deal with rejection.

Relationship Infidelity and Attachment

Research shows avoidant attachment styles are associated with more positive attitudes toward cheating and a higher likelihood of engaging in infidelity.

Conspiracy Beliefs and Attachment

Studies indicate that individuals with anxious attachment styles are more likely to believe in conspiracy theories because they tend to exaggerate the intensity of threats.

The parental period

Encompassed the nine months of a pregnancy

The parental period (con’t)

Development is rapid, but slows down toward the end

The 3 phases of the parental period

1. Germinal stage

2. Embryonic stage

3. Fetal stage

The early adulthood (intimacy versus isolation)

The key concern is whether one can develop the capacity to share intimacy with others

The early adulthood stage (intimacy versus isolation)

Successful resolution of the challenges in this stage should promote empathy and openness.

The middle adulthood stage (generativity versus self-absorption)

The key challenge is to acquire a genuine concern for the welfare of future generations, which results in providing unselfish guidance to younger people and concern with one’s legacy

The late adulthood stage (integrity versus despair)

The challenge is to avoid the tendency to dwell on the mistakes of the past and on one’s imminent death, and instead focus on finding meaning and satisfaction in their lives