A&P-Exam1-StudyGuide

Levels of organization

cells, tissues, organs, organ systems, and the whole organism.

Cellular differentiation

The process by which cells with the same DNA become different from each other due to changes in gene expression.

Types of tissues

epithelial, connective, muscular, and neural.

Extracellular fluid

fluid, non-fiberous glycoproteins,fibers, water, proteins, ions, neutrients

Organ systems

Integumentary, respiratory, skeletal, digestive, muscular, cardiovascular, nervous, urinary, endocrine, reproductive, lymphatic

Why do larger organisms need organ systems?

Organ systems maintain homeostasis by bringing O2 straigt to the organs while diffusion takes too long

Control systems

negative feedback, positive feedback, feedforward, resetting set point

Positive feedback

A mechanism in which a change in a variable triggers a response that amplifies the initial change, leading to further deviation from the set point.

Negative feedback reflex

Types of tissues

connective, epithelial, nervous

Homeostasis is concerned with maintaining a constant

extracellular environment

More common type of feedback system

Negative Feedback

What requires no extra energy

Equlibrium

Cellular differentiation

The process by which cells change the expression of genes in order to become more specialized.

Functional unit

The smallest structure in an organ that performs the primary function of that organ and repeats many times throughout the organ.

What are the main effectors for a reflex?

The muscles and glands

Hormone

can travel through blood, used for long distance

neurotransmitters

can’t travel through blood, used for long distance

paracrine substance

can’t travel through blood or long distance

autocrine substance

can travel through blood and long dinstance

Desmosome protein

cadherins

Hemidesmosome proteins

fibronection snd integrins

Gap Junctions proteins

connexins

Chemical specificity

only a limited number of ligand types can bind to a binding site

saturation

the more ligands the more likely for a protein and ligand to bind ( greater percentage of binding sites occupied)

affinity

how well proteins and ligands bind and the strong connection (can bind in low concentrations)

competition

if more than one ligand can bind to a binding site, depends on the concentrations and affinity of the ligands

In order to be healthy all extracellular variables in the body must be stable in all situations

false

Reflexes can be feedforward

true

Feedforward Regulation is usually beneficial to the organism

true

Parturition (Giving Birth) is an example of

positive feedback

Which of the following organ systems has the smallest role in homeostasis?

reproductive system

Which is most common in the body?

negative feedback

A single protein can bind to many different ligands.

true

Ligand-protein interactions can be covalent

false

The higher the KD for a protein-ligand interaction the

Lower the proteins affinity for the ligand

What kind of proteins hold cells close together/attaches cells to each other?

Cadherins

According to the _________________ model, proteins move freely along the membrane plane and are not anchored in one spot

Fluid-mosaic

What is the name for all of the sugar moeities attached to the extracellular side of membrane proteins that plays an important role in cell recognition?

glycocalyx

Which two types of intercellular communication require direct cell-to-cell contact?

gap junctions and juxtracrine communication

Change in the conformation of one subunit of a protein can change the conformation of other subunits of the protein. This is called ____________________________________.

cooperativity

What is the equation for net flux? Always define abbreviations.

J=PA(Co-Ci); (net flux=permeability x surface area (cnc. outside - cnc. inside) )

What is the general primary direct use of ATP in cells?

phosphorolation of proteins

How do small, polar chemical species, like ions or water, get across the plasma membrane?

channels

How do non-polar molecules, like steroid hormones, get across the plasma membrane?

simple diffusion

Draw a diagram illustrating how coenzyme substrates are used.

List the factors that determine net flux. State which factors do not usually change much in the human body.*

cnc. gradient, nature of membrane, surface area of membrane, size of molecule, temp*, solvent*

Graph the effect of doubling enzyme concentration on the reaction rate by substrate
concentration. You should have two curves on your graph, one at a given enzyme concentration and one at double that enzyme concentration. Be sure to label which is which, and label your axes

 

 

 

Graph the effect of increasing an enzymes affinity for substrate on the rate of the reaction by substrate concentration. You should have two curves on your graph, one with a baseline enzyme affinity and one with a higher enzyme affinity. Be sure to label which is which, and label your axes.

The charge inside a resting cell is ________ compared to the outside of the cell.

negative

What causes bigger conformational change in a protein?

covalent

At absolute zero, there would be no diffusion.

true

the primary function of an organ system is to increas diffusion

false

The net flux of a permeable solute across a membrane is constant until diffusion equilibrium is reached.

false

At diffusion equilibrium, all diffusion stops.

false

A protein may have covalent modulation or allosteric modulation, but not both.

false

All enzymes are proteins.

true

If a reaction is reversible, and the concentration of a substrate/reactant decreases, then the rate of the _________________ reaction will increase.

reverse

If a solute takes 1 second to reach diffusion equilibrium over 10 micrometers, how long would it take to reach diffusion equilibrium over 10 centimeters?

1-9 years

In the body, what is the solvent that the solutes are dissolved in? (related to diffusion)

water

What are the three ways of gating an ion channel?

ligand-gated, voltage-gated, mechanically-gated

What four factors determine the rate of transport of solutes using a facilitated diffusion
transporter?

1. cnc. gradient

2. rate of conformational change

3. number of transporters in the membrane

4. percent aturation of transporters

What is the normal osmolarity of the body? (Remember, a number without units in
meaningless.)

285-295 mOsm

What is the word for moving substances out of the cell by fusing a vesicle containing the substance with the plasma membrane?

endocytosis

What are the three types of endocytosis discussed in the lecture videos?

1. pinocytsis

2. phagocytosis

3. receptor-mediated endocytosis

Which type of endocytosis is most specific?

receptor-mediated endocytosis

What does it mean to say that epithelial cells are polar? (it does not have to do with charge/electricity).

they have different proteins on the apical membrane compared to the basolateral membrane

List the steps of the sodium-potassium pump cycle. Be sure to include autophosphorylation, dephosphorylation, sodium binding and dissociating, potassium binding and dissociating, the number of each ion that binds per cycle, and conformational changes.

Water moves from areas of

Low osmolarity to high osmolarity

The higher the osmotic pressure, the

Higher the solute concentration

There are no active transport methods for water.

true

If a cell crenates, it is in a(n)

Hypertonic solution

The sodium-potassium pump is in the ______ membrane of epithelial cells

basolateral

There is a maximum rate of flux of solutes using a transporter

true

If the volume of the cell does not change, it is in a(n)

Isotonic solution

Other than sodium and potassium, what other 2 ions are primarily regulated by pumps?

calcium and hydrogen

Substances are usually actively transported across both the apical and basolateral membranes of the epithelial layer

false

If a cell swells, it is in a(n)

Hypotonic solution

What ion is commonly used in secondary active transport to move another chemical against its concentration gradient?

sodium

Which is faster?

movement of chemcial species through channels

Transport of chemical species from _____________________________ requires the use of ATP directly or indirectly.

low concentration to high concentration

The sodium-potassium pump

pumps potassium into the cell and sodium out of the cell

If solute concentration is high, water concentration is

low

What is the name of the channel that allows water to move across the plasma membrane?

aquporin