nar test 3 review

Axis Mundi

The “World Axis,” a pole or tree that holds up the

heavens above, the earth in the middle, and the

underworld below, according to the cosmology of

some peoples.

Chicomoztoc

“Seven Caves” in the Aztec (Nahuatl) language,

the term refers to an origin myth which says that

the Aztec people emerged from a set of seven

caves.

Cosmology

The origin and structure of the universe, as

understood by an ethnic group.

Earth-Diver myth

A creation myth in which aquatic birds or animals

bring mud up from beneath primordial waters for

creator-gods to use to fashion the earth.

Emergence Myth

An origin myth in which a people or ethnic group

come to live on the earth’s surface after leaving a

cave or underground location.

Gai’wiio

The “Good News” or “Longhouse Religion” founded

by the Seneca prophet Handsome Lake, blending

Christian and Indigenous American beliefs,

practices, and symbols.

Handsome Lake

A Seneca Indian who died in 1815; a visionary and

prophet in his later years, he founded a syncretized

religion called the Gai’wiio or “Good News.”

Huitzilopochtli

Meaning “Hummingbird of the South,” this is the

most important god in the ancient Aztec pantheon.

Rite of Passage

A ritual that marks an important change in identity

or status of an individual within their community.

Turtle Island

A name for North America used by many

Indigenous peoples because their creation stories

include a turtle who volunteers to act as the

support on which creators build the surface of the

land.

Three sources of religious authority in Native American religions

• Myths – They are explicitly described as “a source of religious authority.” They guide beliefs and practices.

• Rituals (ceremonies) – Myths are re-enacted in rituals, which reinforces and expresses authority in practice.

• Traditions/Established Mythology – Religious practices are judged against existing mythology to ensure consistency, giving authority to inherited traditions.

The three key elements/components of Native American religions.

spiritual power, visions, reprocity

The four directions on earth

The world or cosmos is often thought of as having

four main or important directions (N, S, E, W).

● These are often thought of as four points at which

the sky touches the earth, or four points at which

the sky is otherwise held up.

● The four corners are depicted and symbolized

many different ways

● Because of the importance of the four directions,

the number four was a sacred number in many

Indigenous American cultures.

● But, images of the four directions all have a fifth

element, which is the center. Four directions plus a

center makes the number five sacred.

● And multiplying four and five gives 20, which is

also a sacred number in some of the Indigenous

American cultures.

The center is not just at the middle of a

two-dimensional image.

the “axis mundi”

● The center point of the four directions is then not

so much a point as a pole or axis.

● This central pole or axis is a widely distributed

mythic image called the “Axis Mundi” (literally “axis

of the world”).

● Cross-culturally, the Axis Mundi is often a pillar,

mountain, or tree.

● Mythic tales of people climbing up (or down) a

tree, vine, or pole, are often versions of this.

The World Tree or Axis Mundi is often thought of as

holding up the multiple layers of the whole

cosmology, with the ordinary earth in the middle.

● It is often shown this way in artistic renderings.

● In Maya art, the Axis Mundi is often shown as a

tree, adorned with symbols and inhabited by

various creatures.

● This version of the Axis Mundi often resembles a

Christian Cross.

the related sacred

numbers four and six.

● Thinking of the cosmos as three dimensional

means that the center point, where the four

directions meet, is not just a point, but is an pole

or axis.

● This adds two directions to the most sacred four.

The directions are called “up” and “down” or “over”

and “under.”

● This makes the number six sacred in some Native

American cultures, in addition to four.

an underworld below

In general, there was much more of an emphasis on

this earthly life than on any afterlife.

the afterlife was often

described as very similar to earthly life, just

without some of the dangerous or unpleasant

parts (or at least with less of them).

● The “location” of the afterlife was sometimes

vague.

● But some thought souls went underground, either

to live or to wait to be reborn.

● Some saw the afterlife in the sky or some kind of

heavenly place.

the heavens

● Many Indigenous American cultures thought of a

sky or heaven above, and some other realm below.

There were often multiple layers to the heavens

above. The part below is an underworld in some

cultures, or a place where souls wait to be born.

● The model, then is three-dimensional, with at least

three layers and maybe more.

the middle

● The place where ordinary humans live is the land in

the middle, or the land in between, and is often

called that in Native American languages

The meaning of the Milky Way.

Some thought the Milky Way (visible in the night

sky) either was the place of the afterlife or was a

road to it.

The Aztec origin myth of Chicomoztoc or Seven Caves. (Ex). of Emergence Myth)

The Hidatsa story of people coming up to earth

from somewhere below. In an Emergence Myth, people come from some

inner place that is like a womb, in order to populate

the earth. This is often a hill or a cave.

• It describes seven related groups of people living inside seven caves beneath the earth.

• They are directed by gods or spirits to leave the caves.

• The groups emerge to the surface and journey to what is now central Mexico (Mexico City)

The Hidatsa Creation myth

“First Creator and Lone Man decided to make the

land inhabitable, and seeing a goose, mallard, teal,

and red-eyed mudhen, they asked the birds to

lend assistance by diving below for mud. Goose,

mallard, and teal failed; only the mudhen

succeeded in bringing earth from below. Lone Man

divided the earth and gave half to First Creator.”

“Earth-Diver Myth”

Earth-Diver” myth.

● Diving birds, or sometimes other types of

creatures, bring up mud from somewhere below.

They give it to the creator or creators to rework

into lands and animals.

● Versions of the Earth-Diver myth are found in

many parts of the Americas and in other parts of

the world.

The Hidatsa Creation myth, including an “Earth-Diver Myth” in which aquatic creatures

bring mud up from below the primordial waters for the two creator-spirits to work with.

Know the names of those two spirits or gods.

Earth-Diver” myth.

● Diving birds, or sometimes other types of

creatures, bring up mud from somewhere below.

They give it to the creator or creators to rework

into lands and animals.

● Versions of the Earth-Diver myth are found in

many parts of the Americas and in other parts of

the world.

The Maya Creation story of the goddess Xmucane making human beings out of corn and

water.

The goddess Xmucane, a grandmother and

midwife, ground corn to make their flesh. She

Added water to make their blood.

In the Maya creation story (Popol Vuh), the goddess Xmucane helps create humans out of corn and water. After earlier failed attempts using mud and wood, the gods succeed by shaping people from corn dough. These first humans are intelligent, able to speak, and closely connected to maize, which is considered sacred and the source of life.

Copernicus (What are they known for and in what years?)

1543 CE, Polish polymath Nicolaus Copernicus

shows it is POSSIBLE (not certain) that the sun

could be the center. The idea was still mostly

rejected.

Galileo (What are they known for and in what years?)

Around 1609 CE, Italian astronomer Galileo Galilei

used telescopes to confirm some of the

predictions made by Copernicus, showing that the

sun really was the “center.” The idea starts to

catch on.

Religious ceremonies are scripted (contain specified words) and choreographed (contain

specified actions), which taken together can be called “liturgy.”

a. Both contain symbolic or metaphorical

meanings

b. Both relate to the way people think, feel,

and live

c. Both can be “mined” for information about

religion, cosmology, values, and more

Religious ceremonies, especially public

ceremonies, have a great deal of structure.

a. Specified layout of the performance area

b. Required objects

c. Order of operations

d. Specified words and/or songs

e. Specified actions or movements

a. The structure of ceremonies is often

simpler than in societies with full-time

practitioners

b. But even among hunter-gatherers,

ceremonies can be complex and highly

specified.

a. Sometimes these are explicit, such as

creeds or statements of beliefs.

b. But often values and beliefs are encoded

in more subtle ways.

● Directly or symbolically, ceremonies often

communicate ideas about

a. Religious authority

b. Cosmology

c. Gender

d. Ideas about power and wealth

e. The place of humanity in nature

hallucinogens

● Some groups used hallucinogens

a. This depended on what was locally

available

b. And on knowing how to process or prepare

the substances used

c. Used in the context of a religious ritual,

hallucinogens are called “entheogens”

Hallucinogens are not really entheogens if used outside of the context

of a religious ritual.

entheogens

● Entheogens are hallucinogens used in spiritual contexts

○ Are a class of substances

○ But also are used in a certain way

● Some substances that can affect religious rituals are not entheogens

because they are not hallucinogens, such as tobacco and coca.

It implies a substance that enhances contact with or possession by a

divinity or spirit

Native Americans usually thought of entheogens as plants with

special spiritual powers.

Entheogens are used in a ritual context

■ Often includes dancing, music, and/or chanting

■ Often includes some kind of supervision or support

● Set and Setting impact the visual content of, emotional reaction to,

and later interpretation of, the entheogenic experience

peyote

The Peyote cactus is native to

the deserts of northern

Mexico. One of the alkaloids it

contains is mescaline.

psilocybin

Psilocybin is the name of a

group of mushrooms and of

an alkaloid they (and some

other mushrooms) contain.

Human bodies turn

psilocybin into psilocin, which

is the psychoactive

substance.

ayahuasca

Ayahuasca is the name of a plant

and the name of a vision-inducing

tea made with that plant. The

ayahuasca plant must be brewed

with another plant that contains

DMT (Dimethyltriptamine), which

is sometimes called the “spirit

molecule.”

A non-Indigenous North American on an Ayahuasca adventure in

Ecuador will NOT have exactly the same experience as an

Amazonian Native in the context of their own religious ceremonies.

Amanita muscaria (Fly

Agaric).

Amanita Muscaria

mushrooms, sometimes

called Fly Agaric, grow mostly

in the colder north. They

contain a psychoactive

chemical called muscimol.

Some identify the mushroom as Amanita muscaria (Fly Agaric), but

that is far from certain.

Hidatsa story of Charred Body,

• Charred Body: The central figure, a young woman who is mistreated and burned, but later becomes a powerful spiritual being.

• Lodge Boy and Long Arm: The sons of Charred Body, who grow up apart from their mother and later seek her out, helping restore balance and identity.

• Spring Boy: A younger son who also plays a role in the family’s reunion and transformation.

• Two Men: Supernatural helpers or spirit figures who guide and assist in the events, especially in revealing truth and restoring order.

• Unknown Man: A mysterious figure connected to the events of separation and conflict, often representing danger, deception, or disruption.

Overall, the story focuses on suffering, separation, and eventual spiritual reunion and transformation, with the sons helping reconnect their mother to her true identity and power.

Hidatsa story of Woman Above

In the Hidatsa creation story of Woman Above, the main figures, symbols, and actions explain how life and the world begin:

Key characters

• Woman Above: A powerful sky woman who descends from the sky world and becomes central to creation.

• Earth beings/animals (especially the water animals): Help shape the earth by bringing mud from below the water.

• Creator spirits (often two helper beings in some versions): Assist in forming land and life after Woman Above falls.

Key symbols

• Water: Represents the original chaotic world before land exists.

• Mud/earth brought from below: Symbol of creation and the forming of land.

• Sky/world above: The original home of Woman Above, representing a spiritual origin.

• Animals (especially diving animals): Symbolize cooperation in creation.

Key actions

• Woman Above falls or descends from the sky world into the watery earth.

• Water animals dive down and bring up mud, which is placed on a turtle or foundation to create land.

• The earth grows from this mud, forming the world where humans and animals can live.

• Woman Above becomes part of the new world, linking the sky realm and earth.

Overall, the story explains creation as a cooperative process between spiritual beings and animals, with earth forming out of water through shared effort.

the vision of Handsome Lake

In the vision of Handsome Lake, a key figure in Haudenosaunee (Iroquois) tradition, the story focuses on spiritual renewal and moral guidance:

Key characters

• Handsome Lake (Ganioda’yo): A Seneca leader who becomes a prophet after a life of illness and alcoholism. He receives spiritual visions that guide reform.

• Spiritual messengers/three beings in his vision: Supernatural figures who show him the consequences of human behavior and teach him how people should live.

• The Creator (Great Spirit / Haudenosaunee Creator): The ultimate source of moral law and balance, whose will is communicated through the vision.

Key symbols

• Fire or light: Spiritual truth, purification, and the presence of the Creator.

• Heavenly journey/visions: A symbolic passage between the human world and the spiritual realm.

• Alcohol and disorder: Symbol of moral decline and suffering among the people.

• Clean, orderly life practices: Symbol of spiritual renewal and traditional balance.

Key actions

• Handsome Lake becomes very ill and enters a state of vision.

• He travels spiritually into the sky world, where he meets spiritual beings.

• He is shown visions of punishment for wrongdoing and rewards for proper living.

• He returns with a message that teaches people to reject alcohol, live morally, and restore traditional values.

Overall, the vision is about moral reform, healing, and restoring balance in the community through spiritual guidance.

describe the process a Lakota Sioux male would use to seek

a vision. Base your answer on the “Crying for a Vision” excerpt

Process to obtain the vision

• The seeker (the “lamenter”) first receives guidance from a holy man.

• He undergoes purification in a sweat lodge (inipi), where he prays and makes offerings to the six directions.

• He then travels to a sacred mountain with helpers, who prepare a ritual site marked by a center pole and four directional poles.

• The seeker is left alone on the mountain, removes most clothing, and begins fasting (no food or water).

• He repeatedly prays, cries, and circles the sacred space in a cross-shaped path, stopping at the center and four directions.

• He remains in this state for 3–4 days, often sleeping lightly and staying alert for signs.

How the vision is received

• The vision comes through spiritual experiences during waking, sleep, or near-sleep states.

• He must stay aware of signs in nature (animals, birds, weather, etc.), which may carry messages.

• The seeker does not control the vision—it is given by Wakan-Tanka (Great Spirit).

Interpretation of the vision

• After returning to camp, he enters a sweat lodge again.

• A holy man leads a public interpretation ceremony.

• The seeker recounts everything honestly.

• The holy man and community interpret the vision as guidance for the seeker and the whole people, confirming its meaning and spiritual authority.

Big idea

The vision is obtained through isolation, fasting, prayer, and ritual discipline, and its meaning is only fully understood through community interpretation led by a spiritual guide.

describe the Aztec Communion Ritual that we read in class in

the excerpt “Acosta on Aztec Communion Ritual.”

In “Acosta on an Aztec Communion Ritual,” the Aztec festival of Huitzilopochtli is described as a major religious ceremony that combines procession, sacrifice, and symbolic communion.

The ritual begins when temple women (virgins) prepare a dough made from ground maize and amaranth mixed with honey. This dough is shaped into an idol of the god Huitzilopochtli, which is then decorated, dressed, and treated as a living divine being.

On the day of the festival, the idol is carried in a large public procession, with nobles, youths, and temple attendants participating. The procession moves through different sacred locations before returning to the main temple in Mexico City, where the idol is lifted up the temple steps and placed in a sacred space surrounded by flowers and offerings.

Priests and participants then perform dances, songs, and, importantly, human sacrifices as part of honoring the god. After the ceremonies, the idol is broken into pieces, and the dough is distributed to the people.

This final act is treated as a sacred communion, where people believe they are eating the flesh and bones of the god itself, receiving divine presence directly. The ritual reinforces community unity, religious devotion, and the idea that the god is physically shared among the people.