BIIIIIIG HUMANITIES SEM 1

Location and Background

Kakadu National Park, Northern Territory

UNESCO World Heritage Site

Biodiverse wetlands and floodplains

Managed with traditional owners

Environmental issue

A natrual or human caused problem that disrupts ecosystems by altering environmental conditions and affecting plants, animals and human communities

Salt water intrusion

the process where sea water moves into fresh water environments, increasing salinity and changing water quality, soil conditions and ecosystem health

Mitigation

Actions taken to reduce the severity or impacts of environmental problems and help protect ecosystems from further damage

What is happening and what are its effects

•Saltwater intrusion occurs when seawater moves inland into freshwater wetlands due to sea-level rise, storm surges, or damaged natural barriers.

•In Kakadu, tidal seawater travels upstream into floodplains that were once freshwater environments.

•Increased salinity changes soil and water chemistry.

•Freshwater plants such as paperbark trees and water lilies weaken or die because they cannot tolerate salt.

•Loss of vegetation reduces habitat, food sources, and shelter for fish, birds, and insects.

•Salt buildup in soil prevents new freshwater plants from growing.

•Wetlands may permanently shift to salt-tolerant coastal vegetation.

•These changes reduce biodiversity and disrupt breeding areas and ecosystem processes.

•Over time, altered water chemistry reshapes entire habitats and ecosystems.

Causes

Sea level rise

• global temperatures increase, causing ocean water to expand and polar ice to melt.

• As sea levels rise over time, seawater can push further inland during high tides and flooding.

• In low-lying areas like Kakadu’s floodplains, this increases saltwater entry into wetlands that were previously mostly freshwater.

Climate Change

• Climate change is the long-term shift in global weather patterns, largely driven by increased greenhouse gas emissions.

• Warmer temperatures contribute to higher sea levels, stronger storms, and changing rainfall.

• These conditions increase how often saltwater is pushed into freshwater ecosystems, speeding up environmental change.

Historical Buffalo Grazing Damage

• Not native Buffalos once heavily grazed and trampled Kakadu’s wetlands, damaging vegetation and natural levee banks who previously acted as barriers against seawater

• When protections weakened, channels formed that allowed saltwater to move inland more easily, leaving long-lasting impacts even after buffalo numbers were reduced.

Storm Surges and Tidal Movement

• Storm surges occur when strong winds and low air pressure push ocean water onto land during storms.

• This temporarily raises water levels and forces seawater further upstream into rivers and wetlands.

• Repeated surges increase salinity and gradually transform freshwater habitats into salt-affected environments

Salinity

The concentration of dissolved salts (such as sodium chloride, magnesium, and calcium sulfates) in soil or water

evidence and data

•Sea Level Rising (~3–4 mm per year)

Wetland Vegetation Decline

• many native wetland plants struggle to survive because they are not adapted to salty conditions

Increasing Salinity Readings

• Data shows that salt concentrations are increasing in areas affected by seawater intrusion. Rising salinity confirms that freshwater ecosystems are gradually changing into more marine-like environments, providing scientific evidence that the environmental issue is ongoing rather than temporary.

Environmental Effects

Loss of Freshwater Plants

•Species such as water lilies, freshwater grasses, and paperbark trees become stressed as salt interferes with their ability to absorb water and nutrients

Habitat Decline

•Freshwater vegetation provides essential habitat for animals by offering food, shelter, and breeding areas. As plants disappear, wetland environments become less suitable for fish, birds, reptiles, and insects that rely on dense vegetation

Biodiversity Reduction

•As habitats decline, fewer species are able to survive in the affected area. Some animals migrate elsewhere, while others experience population decline due to loss of food sources and nesting areas. Over time, the ecosystem becomes less diverse and less resilient to environmental change, meaning it is harder for the environment to recover from disturbances such as floods, droughts, or climate impacts.

Social & Cultural Effects

Impacts on Indigenous Food Sources

Many Indigenous communities rely on freshwater wetlands for traditional foods such as fish, water plants, and waterbirds. As saltwater changes these ecosystems, some species decline or move away, reducing access to important bush foods and affecting traditional harvesting practices.

Cultural Landscape Changes

Wetlands in Kakadu are not only natural environments but also culturally significant landscapes connected to stories, knowledge, and long-standing land management practices. Environmental changes alter the appearance and function of Country, impacting cultural connections and the ability to maintain traditional practices.

Tourism Risks

Kakadu’s wetlands attract visitors because of their wildlife, scenery, and cultural value. Environmental degradation, including vegetation loss and reduced biodiversity, may make some areas less attractive or accessible, potentially affecting tourism experiences and local economic benefits.

Stakeholder perspective

•Traditional Owners: Protect cultural sites and traditional food sources affected by environmental change.

•Parks Australia: Manage and conserve wetlands while balancing visitor access.

•Scientists & Researchers: Study ecosystem changes and provide evidence for management decisions.

•Government: Fund and develop policies to address environmental and climate challenges.

•Tourism Operators: Depend on healthy environments to attract visitors.

•Local Communities: Rely on the environment for employment, culture, and wellbeing.

Management Responses Saltwater Barriers

•Local: Built in Kakadu wetlands to physically stop seawater entering freshwater floodplains.

•National: Supported through Australian Government conservation funding and national park management plans.

•Global: Part of climate adaptation strategies used worldwide to protect vulnerable coastal ecosystems from sea-level rise.

Management Responses Vegetation Restoration

•Local: Native plants replanted to restore habitats and stabilise wetland ecosystems in Kakadu.

•National: Aligns with Australia’s biodiversity conservation and ecosystem restoration programs.

•Global: Supports international goals such as ecosystem restoration under UN environmental sustainability initiatives.

Management responses Ranger Programs

•Local: Indigenous ranger groups manage Country using traditional ecological knowledge and on-ground conservation practices.

•National: Funded through Australian Indigenous Ranger and Caring for Country programs.

•Global: Recognises Indigenous knowledge as an important approach in global environmental management and sustainability frameworks.

Management responses Monitoring Programs

•Local: Scientists measure salinity, vegetation health, and ecosystem change in Kakadu wetlands.

•National: Data contributes to Australian climate research and environmental reporting.

•Global: Monitoring supports international climate science and helps track global environmental change trends.

Mitigation Strategies

•Short: Monitoring — Regularly measuring environmental conditions to detect changes early and guide management decisions.

•Medium: Habitat Restoration — Rebuilding damaged ecosystems by restoring native vegetation and improving natural wetland conditions.

•Long: Climate Adaptation Planning — Developing long-term strategies to help ecosystems and communities adjust to ongoing climate change impacts.

Successes

Wetland Recovery Areas

•Management actions such as saltwater barriers and vegetation restoration have helped some wetlands recover, allowing freshwater plants and wildlife to return in protected areas. These efforts show that local management strategies can slow environmental damage and support ecosystem recovery.

Challenges

Ongoing Sea Level Rise and Costs

•Despite local successes, rising sea levels continue to push saltwater inland, making long-term protection difficult. Management projects are also expensive and require ongoing maintenance, meaning solutions may become harder to sustain without broader action on climate change

Location

Kakedu National Park, Northern territory

Background/overall problem

-wetlands biome

-sea water mves inland into fresh water wetlands due to sea-levels rising, dectruction of natural barriers and storm surges

causes - sea levels rising

-global temperatures rise causing ocean water to expand and ice caps to melt

-sea water is pushed inland during high tides/flooding

-increases saltwater entry into wetlands

causes - climate change

-warmer temps lead to higher seal levels, stronger storms and changing rainfall

-these factors increase how often sea water is pushed inland into wetlands

causes - historical buffalo grazing

-introduced baffalos once heavily grazed the area, damaging vegetation and natural levee banks (barriers)

-these levees acted as barriers to prevent saltwater from entering ecosystem

causes - storm surges/tidal movement

-strong winds/low air pressure push water into land during storms

-temporarily raises sea levels

-forces sea water into wetlands

Evidence and data - sea levels rising

monitoring shows 3-4mm each year

-over decades, it allows water to gradually move inland

evidence and data - wetland vegetation decline

-many plants struggle to survive because they aren’t adapted to high salinity

-important species begin to die off

-loss reduces habitat quality, destabililses soil and removes food sources for animals

evidence and data - inxreasing salinity readings

-monitoring programs measure salinity levels in water and soil across Kakadu’s floodplains

-data shows concentrations are increasing

environmental effects - loss of freshwater plants

-plants can’t survive because they are adapted to low-salinity conditions

-plants become stressed as salt interferes with their ability to absorb water/nutrients

-overtime, plants will die

environmental effects - habitat decline

-as plants and vegetation dies off, ecosystem becomes less suitable for animals

environmental effects - biodiversity reduction

-as habitats decline, fewer species are able to survive

-over time, ecosystem becomes less diverse and resilient to environmental changes

social/cultural effects - indigenous food sources

-many indigenous communities rely on freshwater wetlands for traditional foods

-as species die, there is reduced access to important bush foods, affecting traditional harvesting practices

social/cultural effects - landscape changes

-Kakadu is culturally significant landscape connected to stories, knowledge, and long-standing management practices

-thios affects cutural connections and ability to maintain traditional practices

social/cultural effects - toruism

-environmental degradation may make areas less attractive or accessible

stakeholders - traditional owners

-Bininj/Mungguy custodians

-protect cultural sites and traditional food sources

stakeholders - parks australia

-Kakadu National Park managemnet

-manage and conserve wetlands while balancing visitor access

stakeholders - local communities

Jabiru/Gunbalanya residents

-rely on the environment for employment, culture, and wellbeing

management responses - local

-built barriers to physically stop seawater from entering

-replanting native plants

-indigenous groups manage Country

managemnet responses - national

-Kakadu is supported through Aus gov conservation funding

-funded through Aus Indigenous ranger programs

Management responses - global

-part of climate adaptation stratergis used worldwide

Mitigation strats - short-term

monitoring

-regularly measuring environemtnal conditions to detect changes early and guide manahement decisions

Mitigation strats - long-term

climate adaptation planning

-developing long-term strats to help ecosystems and communities ajust to ongoing climate chnage impacts

Checks and balances

Mechanisms that prevent one branch of government from becoming too powerful by allowing each branch to limit or review the actions of others.

e.g.

• The High Court can declare laws unconstitutional.

• Parliament can remove a Prime Minister.

• The Governor-General can dissolve Parliament.

High Court

The judicial body in Australia that has the power to declare laws unconstitutional as part of the system of checks and balances.

Representative democracy

A system where citizens elect representatives to make laws and decisions on their behalf.

Federalism

The division of law-making power between different levels of government, specifically Federal, State/Territory, and Local.

Westminster system

A system of government followed by Australia consisting of a head of state (represented by the Governor-General), an elected Parliament, and a Prime Minister and Cabinet drawn from that Parliament.

Australian Constitution

The supreme law of Australia that establishes the structure of government, the powers of each branch, and how power is divided.

Rule of law

The principle that all people, including government officials, are equally subject to and protected by laws.

Free and fair elections

Regular elections conducted via secret ballot, managed independently by the AEC, and allowing for the peaceful transfer of power.

Australian Electoral Commission (AEC)

The independent body responsible for managing and overseeing elections in Australia.

Universal Suffrage

The right of all adult citizens to vote in elections and referendums regardless of their background.

Right to dissent

The freedom to disagree with, criticise, or protest against the government, laws, or decisions within the bounds of the law without unfair punishment.

Legislature

The branch of government responsible for making laws, comprised of the House of Representatives and the Senate.

Executive

The branch of government that enforces laws, including the Prime Minister, Cabinet, and Governor-General.

Judiciary

The branch of government that interprets laws, consisting of the High Court and Federal Court.

The Voice referendum (safe guard e.g.)

• In 2023, Australians voted on whether to establish a permanent Indigenous advisory body to Parliament called “The Voice.”

Timeline

• 2017 Uluru Statement from the Heart

• 2022 Government committed to referendum

• 2023 referendum result: “No”

Why is a referendum a safeguard?

• The Constitution can only be changed if the people vote yes

• It prevents quick or unfair constitutional changes

• All states must agree (double majority)

This protects democracy by ensuring the people have final authority

Double majority

A requirement for changing the Constitution where a majority of voters nationwide and a majority of voters in a majority of states must agree.

Love and Thoms (2020)

What happened

• (2020) The High Court had to decide whether Aboriginal Australians who are not Australian citizens can legally be treated as “aliens” under the Constitution.

• Love was born overseas, identified as Aboriginal, but was not an Australian citizen. After a criminal conviction, the government tried to deport him.

• Thoms (also a criminal) had a similar situation as he was also a non-citizen, recognised as Aboriginal, facing deportation after visa cancellation.

Outcome

• The majority held that non-citizen aboriginal Australians ‘were not within the reach of the ‘aliens in power’ in s51(xix) of the constitution. Therefore, non-citizen aboriginal Australians could not be considered aliens and therefore could not be removed from Australia under s198 of migration act.

How is it a safeguard

• The judiciary limited government deportation power.

• It showed judicial independence.

• It upheld the rule of law.

• It demonstrated checks and balances.

Terrorism

The use of violence or threats intended to create fear, insecurity, and social disruption while challenging democratic values.

Bondi shooting (14th of dec 2025)

• 14^th of dec 2025 a mass shooting occurred at Bondi beach during Chanukah by the sea (the start of a Jewish festival) 

• Around 1000 people were there 

• A father and son opened fire on a pedestrian bridge 

• The police engaged and the father was shot and killed, the son was wounded 

• Some of the things they were charged with were terrorism, murder, and attempted murder 

Digitisation of Media

The shift to digital platforms that facilitates the rapid spread of misinformation, deepfakes, and fake news, impacting public opinion.

Donkey voting

The act of a voter ranking candidates in the order they appear on the ballot paper rather than researching their choices.

Informal ballots

Votes that are incorrectly filled out and therefore not counted in the election results.

Vested interests

• A personal or financial stake attempting to influence the government

• Vested interest – national, within Australia

• Foreign interests – international

• This threatens democracy by undermining autonomy, challenging the integrity of decision making

• corporate donations from fossil fuel companies, used to attempt to influence government decisions.

ASIO

The Australian Security Intelligence Organisation which, in 2023, disrupted a foreign plot aimed at interfering with Australia’s democratic system.

Macroeconomics relevance to businesses

Knowing the state of the economy helps plan strategy, future investments and estimate profits

Macroeconomics relevance to Citizens

Make informed decisions on employment, purchasing of major assets, investments, wealth creation and voting

Macroeconomics relevance to government

need to know the economic situation in order to create policy to manage the economy and achieve their macroeconomic objectives

GPD

Gross Domestic Product

the main measure of economic growth

Measures the total value of all goods and services produced in an economy each year

Measured in $ terms (usually USD)

Includes

• household spending (consumption)

• Business

• Government spending

Inclusions

• re building after a natural disaster

• weapons production

• unhealthy production (tobacco, junk food, etc.)

• production of pollutants such as coal

Exclusions

• volunteer work

• caring for family work

• house work

• leisure time

• environmental quality

• many important wellbeing factors

__________________________________________________________________________

• GDP is a measure of money - nothing else

Inflation

An increase in the level of prices of the goods and services that households buy

measured in the rate of changes of those prices

Consumer Price Index (CPI)

A quarterly measurement of the prices of around 100 000 commonly used goods and services that shows the changes in prices

Causes of inflation

Consumer Activity

• Rising demand

Increasing costs

• Chain reaction

Monetary policy

the manipulation of interest rates by the Reserve Bank of Australia (RBA) to influence the price levels and level of economic activity in the economy

Fiscal Policy

the manipulation of government spending and taxation to influence the level of economic activity in the economy

economic growth

an increase in the value of the goods and services produces by an economy over time. It is usually measured as a percentage change in real GDP

Cyclical unemployment

Occurs when the level of spending in the economy falls

• i.e a business is making fewer sales, so they cut employees

Boom/peak

Economic growth and general activity is above average

• High consumption expenditure

• high output/production

• low unemployment rates

• high levels of business profits

• confidence throughout the economy (Business and consumer)

• Above target inflation rates

why must economic growth be controlled

strain natural resources

increase inequality

Unemployment rate formula

Number of unemployed people ÷ labour force

Targets %

Sustainable economic growth range (GDP)

• 2-4%

RBA inflation target

• 2-3%

Unemployment

• 4-5%

Inflation rate (annual %) formula

CPI this year - CPI last year ÷ CPI last year

Real GDP

A measure of a country’s gross domestic product that has been adjusted for inflation

Structural unemployment

Occurs to changes in the way goods and services are produced, leading to a mismatch of skills

• eg. AI taking over

Major causes

• automation + outsourcing

Disproportionately affect lower paid and lower skilled jobs

Contraction

Due to the negatives caused by booms (inflation) the government puts in place contractionary economic policy to reduce the level of activity

Fiscal policy

• increasing taxes and/or spending rate

Monetary policy

• increasing official interest rate

decrease in spending, investment, profit and confidence

unemployment will rise and inflation will drop

Happens quickly

Seasonal unemployment

Results from the termination of jobs at the same time each year due to the regular change in season

• eg. someone working as a fruit picker, ski lift operator etc.

what is macroeconomics and why is it studied

Macroeconomics

• the study of the economy as a whole

• the total aggregate level of economic activity (production, expenditure and income)

Analysing data about the state of the economy means that we can identify problems and their courses and create strategies to deal with or prosper from them

Real wages

income expressed in terms of purchasing power as opposed to actual money received

in regards to inflation

Frictional unemployment

Unemployed between one job and another or entering the work force for the first time

small amount of frictional unemployment is important because it means that people are seeking opportunities and are able to change jobs if they wish

Trough

Economic activity ‘bottoms out’ sometimes bringing a recession

• low levels of consumption expenditure

• low levels of output/production

• low levels of inflation

• increase levels in savings

• low consumer and business confidence

• highest unemployment rates

The govt. will usually bring about expansionary policy to boost the levels of economic activity to start an upswing

why economic growth matters

it changes the overall quality of life of a person

• produces enough goods + services

• improves quality and variety of goods

• creates job opportunities

• raising living standards

Effects of high inflation

decreased purchasing power for consumers

increases in interest rates

worsening income inequality

Business cycle

the regular fluctuations in economic activity over time. It is categorised with distinct phases (peak, contraction, trough and expansion) and is measured in GDP unemployment

Dash line

• what the government would ideally like to happen based off fiscal and monetary policy

Trend line

• average growth over time

Why is GDP important

gives us a snapshot of the economy

• this years vs previous years

businesses

• who to hire and if they should hire or fire more people

consumers

• jobs to choose/move to, what to buy and from where

government

• adjusting taxes

Upswing/expansion

during a trough, the government will put expansionary policy in place to start an upswing

Fiscal policy

• decrease taxes and/or increasing spending

Monetary policy

• decreasing the official interest rate

Can take time but we know it is working when we see GDP and inflation start to increase back into its targets as well as a decrease in unemployment

Recession

a period of two successive quarters (six months) of negative GDP growth

how does unemployment rate relate to economic growth

a high unemployment rate = a decrease in economic growth and leads to an overall lower standard of living for the population

a low unemployment rate = an increase in economic growth and leads to an overall higher standard of living for the population

To whom, and why, is the unemployment rate important?

individuals: it allows people to make decisions about whether to take the risk of finding a different job

businesses: providing evidence for making hiring decisions

government: for issues such as taxation and welfare

who are not included in the unemployment rate

People who choose not to work, such as students, stay-at-home parents and sick or injured individuals.

Labour Force Survey

• the ABS (aus bureau of statsitcics) conducts it

• a monthly survey that collects information about the employment status of Australians aged 15 and over

Measuring the unemployment rate

Unemployment rate = Number of unemployed people/Labour force

• The labour force = everyone in Australia who is either working or actively seeking work

• Employed = people working at least one hour per week (including self-employed)

• Unemployed = people actively seeking work but not currently working