NEUR 301 - Exam 3

neuroendocrine and autonomic nervous systems, and motivated behavior

the hypothalamus regulates the ….

suprachiasmit nucleus (SCN)

regulates circadian rhythm and wakefulness

preoptic nuclei (POA)

thermoregulation, water balance, and sexual functions are controlled by …

uses acetylcholine

presynaptic ganglion cell …

uses acetylcholine

parasympathetic postsynaptic neuron …

uses epinephrine/norepinephrine

sympathetic postsynaptic neuron …

cholesterol

precursor for sex hormones; produced in adrenal gland and gonads

organizational effects

during prenatal (perinatal) or sensitive periods of development; permanent

activational effects

after puberty; temporary

guinea pig experiment

response to testosterone is not proportional to dosage; generally required for sexual behavior

rat experiment

sex hormones need to be present in the system for instinctual offspring care response

congenital adrenal hyperplasia

disproportionally large adrenal gland in response to increased androgen exposure during pregnancy; females have masculinized genitalia

androgen insensitivity syndrome

XY fetuses have a genetic mutation that results in no effect from testosterone; males grow up with female phenotype and are sterile

5a-reductase deficiency

genetic mutation in the enzyme required for the conversion of testosterone to DHT; immasculine boys catch up after puberty

2D:4D ratio

correlated with perinatal exposure to testosterone and sexual orientation; only in females

fraternal birth order

second+ sons are more likely to be gay due to mother’s antibodies

positive feedback in females

child labor and ovulation

oxytocin

responsible for contractions, lactation, and prosocial parenting behaviors

increased oxytocin

more care for ingroup, hostility towards outgroup (mimics vasopressin response)

vasopressin (ADH)

responsible for water preservation in kidneys and aggressive type

how long it takes to express genes and interact between cells in SCN

why is circadian rhythm roughly 24 hours?

time cues and/or SCN

required for maintenance of a regular circadian rhythm

alpha waves

present in wakefulness; drowsy feeling; low frequency high amplitude

beta waves

present in wakefulness; increased energy; high frequency lower amplitude

REM sleep

similar brain waves to wakefulness; paralyzed trunk muscles

immune function, growth, and memory preservation

sleep promotes …

reticular formation (ARAS)

promotes wakefulness and attention

cingulate, insula, and orbitofrontal cortex

limbic system is composed of …

anterior cingulate + orbitofrontal

OFC

assigns reward value

ACC

detects conflicts and weighs options to choose

mammillary bodies

responsible for memory

baroreceptors

major blood vessels; detect pressure drop from fluid loss

osmoreceptors

brain signal to preoptic area; detects saltiness of extracellular fluid

anisogamy

different gamete sizes; mostly sexually reproducing organisms
larger = female (almost always)

isogamy

same gamete size; most unicellular eukaryotes

hermaphroditism

both male and female organs and gametes within the same individual

parthenogenesis

virgin birth; rare in vertebrates and never in mammals

independent assortment

pairs of homologous chromosomes line up randomly during meiosis

crossing over

pairs of homologous chromoso

random fertilization

two gametes from male and female are randomly selected to reproduce

about 2 billion ya.

first sexually-reproducing organisms; early eukaryotes

facultative reproduction

can produce sexually or asexually

obligative reproduction

only asexual or sexual

ratchet effect

accumulation of deleterious mutations in asexual reproduction

raffle analogy

sexual → buying a hundred tickets with different numbers
asexual → buying a hundred tickets with the same number

red queen hypothesis

an evolutionary arms race; resistance against competing species

sequential hermaphrodite

the environment can change sex within an individual; requires precise temperature, light, nutrients, and stress

SRY gene

male reproduction is instigated by ….

Y-centered; default female

the XY system in humans and most mammals is …

intersex

either genitals not consistent with sex chromosomes or genitals are not typical of male or female

INAH-3

responsible for sexual and reproductive behaviors with hypothalamus in humans

SDN-POA

in rodents; responsible for sexual and reproductive behaviors

tournament species

prominent sexual dimorphism; polygamous; little father investment

pair-bonding species

less sexual dimorphism; monogamous; more father investment

sexual dimorphism

each sex presents different characteristics that makes them more suitable to the opposing sex

steroid category

all sex hormones belong to the …

inside the cells

sex steroids bind to receptors …

mineralocorticoids

increased water/electrolytes retention; aldosterone

glucocorticoids

increased blood sugar and decreased inflammation; cortisol

adrenal gland

responsible for producing corticosteroids and sex steroid precursors

epinephrine

adrenal medulla makes …

effects of oxytocin

early stages of pair-bonding, attachment, and empathy

effects of vasopressin

late stages of pair-bonding, mate guarding, vigilance, territoriality, and aggression

mama bear effect

high doses of oxytocin; aggressive to outgroup

circadian entrainment

synchronizing internal circadian clock to external rhythmic time cues

mechanism of entrainment

glutamate is released from retino-hypothalamic neurons onto SCN cells

ultradian rhythm

sleeping more than once a day for a shorter period of time

electroencephalography (EEG)

recording of gross electrical activity of brain through scalp electrodes (brain waves)

non-REM stage 1

vertex spikes, slow heart rate, less time in alpha rhythm

non-REM stage 2

sleep spindles and K-complexes (sharp negative EEG)

non-REM stage 3

large, slow delta waves

total sleep time decreases (stage 3)

as people age …

fatal familial insomnia

rare genetic disease where people stop sleeping and die within 7-24 months

compromised immune system

death by lack of sleep

stimulus, physiological response, behavioral response, feeling

components of emotion

feelings

subjective reports of emotions; more variable and context-dependent

mood

a sustained emotional state that is less specific and intense; does not necessarily have a trigger

affect

outward expression (mostly facial) of an emotional state; can change quickly

valence

the positive or negative outcome of emotion (processed by amygdala)

arousal

level of alertness or excitation; controlled by ARAS

hypothalamus → pituitary → adrenal

physiological response component HPA axis

chronic stress

shortens lifespan; is rare in other animals

folk psychology

feeling triggers autonomic reaction

james-lange theory

autonomic reaction triggers feeling

cannon-bard theory

simultaneous feeling and autonomic reaction

schachter and singer theory

cognitive attribution of emotion in response to autonomic; context matters

facial feedback hypothesis

sensory feedback from our facial expressions can affect our mood (ex. simulated smile)

speed of response and conscious access

differences between low and high road of emotion

high road emotional pathway

required to remember fear stimulus for future occasions

exploration vs. exploitation

risk of losing a safe bet or losing a better chance; fundamental tradeoff for all animals

overactivation of nucleus accumbens

pursuing one reward at the expense of all other rewards (can lead to death; cocaine rats)

hedonic treadmill

as soon as you achieve a goal and enjoy it, you look for a new more desirable goal (circle of wanting)

in anticipation of reward or unexpected reward

increased dopamine

50% uncertainty

highest dopamine response

inhibitory control

prefrontal cortex; slows down circuits that shortcut the cortex; coordinates circuits

high delayers (marshmallow)

increased activity in frontal cortex

low delayers (marshmallow)

increased activity in nucleus accumbens

stroop test

name the color of the word not what is written; requires inhibition from dorsolateral prefrontal cortex

procedural memory (motor skills)

reduced cortical control physiological response