Final Review − Human Anatomy & Physiology

Comprehensive vocabulary flashcards covering Human Anatomy and Physiology, including major organ systems, feedback loops, hormones, and development.

Human Anatomy

The study of the body’s structure and the relationship among those structures.

Human Physiology

The study of the body’s functions.

Feedback Loop

A change in a regulated variable causes effect that feedback in turn affect that some variable.

Negative Feedback Loop

A mechanism that opposes the initial change and reduces the output to return a variable to the normal range.

Positive Feedback Loop

A mechanism that increases the response to a stimulus and reinforces the initial stimulus; less common than negative feedback loops.

Stimulus

Information that a regulated variable is outside the normal range.

Receptor or Sensor

The cellular structure that registers the stimulus in a feedback loop.

Control Center

The brain or gland where the stimulus is sent via the nervous or endocrine system.

Effector

The cells or organ that will react to a stimulus to cause a response.

Endocrine System

Regulates the functions of muscles, glands, and other tissues through the secretion of chemicals called hormones.

Anterior Pituitary Gland

Secretes Growth Hormone which stimulates tissue growth.

Posterior Pituitary Gland

Secretes Antidiuretic which increases water retention and Oxytocin which stimulates uterine contraction.

Pineal Gland

Secretes Melatonin which is partially responsible for the sleep cycle.

Thyroxine

Hormone secreted by the Thyroid Gland responsible for metabolic rate and necessary for normal growth.

Calcitonin

Hormone secreted by the Thyroid Gland that decreases bone reabsorption or breakdown.

Aldosterone

Secreted by the Adrenal Cortex; regulates sodium, potassium, and hydrogen ions in the body.

Cortisol

Secreted by the Adrenal Cortex; mediates the body’s response to stress.

Epinephrine & Norepinephrine

Secreted by the Adrenal Medulla; responsible for the “flight or fight” response (adrenaline).

Thymosin

Secreted by the Thymus; assists in T lymphocyte mutation.

Tropic Hormones

Secreted by the Hypothalamus; stimulate or inhibit the release of other hormones.

Glucagon

Secreted by the Pancreas; increases the levels of glucose and other metabolites in the blood.

Estrogens

Secreted by the Ovaries; responsible for secondary sex characteristics in females and necessary for ovum production.

Progesterone

Secreted by the Ovaries; prepares the body for pregnancy and supports fetal development.

Testosterone

Secreted by the Testes; also noted for decreasing the levels of glucose and other metabolites in the blood.

Bronchioles

Small airways in the bronchial tree that contain no cartilage.

Alveoli

Terminal structures in the respiratory system where gas exchange occurs.

Pulmonary Ventilation

The movement of air in and out of the lungs, including inhalation and exhalation.

Tissue Gas Exchange (Internal Respiration)

The process where Oxygen moves from the blood to body cells and Carbon dioxide moves from tissues to the blood.

Alimentary Canal

The continuous tube food travels through, from the oral cavity to the pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, and large intestine (ending at the anus).

Peristalsis

The movement used by the esophagus to move the bolus to the stomach.

Chyme

The substance formed in the stomach after food is churned and treated with acid (HCl).

Small Intestine

The main site of digestion and absorption; composed of the Duodenum, Jejunum, and Ileum.

Liver

Produces bile for fat emulsification, detoxifies, and stores nutrients.

Mechanical Digestion

The physical breakdown of food (e.g., chewing, churning, segmentation) to increase surface area.

Chemical Digestion

The breaking of chemical bonds in food using enzymes through hydrolysis reactions.

Myocardium

The middle, muscle layer of the heart wall responsible for pumping.

SA Node

Known as the Pacemaker; the part of the conduction system that starts the heartbeat.

Capillaries

Blood vessels responsible for the exchange of gases, nutrients, and wastes.

Plasma

The liquid portion of blood (about $55\%$), composed of $90\%$ water, $1\%$ solutes, and $9\%$ plasma proteins.

Albumin

A plasma protein responsible for maintaining osmotic pressure.

Neutrophils

The most common type of granulocyte; they phagocytize bacteria.

Eosinophils

Granulocytes that fight parasites and are involved in allergic reactions.

Basophils

Granulocytes that release histamine and heparin to cause inflammation.

Lymphocytes

Agranulocytes divided into B cells (antibodies) and T cells (destroy infected/cancer cells).

Monocytes

Agranulocytes that become macrophages to clean up debris, dead cells, and bacteria.

Lacteal

Structure in the small intestine used by the lymphatic system to absorb fats.

Innate Immunity

A general, immediate defense system present at birth with no memory, utilizing phagocytes and natural killer (NK) cells.

Adaptive Immunity

A slower, specific defense system involving B cells and T cells that creates immune memory.

Nephron

The functional unit of the kidney, consisting of the renal corpuscle and renal tubule.

Spermatogenesis

The production of sperm in the seminiferous tubules, beginning at puberty and taking about $60$ to $70$ days.

Oogenesis

The production of eggs which begins before birth; usually involves the ovulation of $1$ egg per month after puberty.

Ectoderm

The germ layer that forms the skin and nervous system.

Mesoderm

The germ layer that forms the muscles, bones, and organs.

Endoderm

The germ layer that forms internal linings of the digestive and respiratory systems.