Psychology of Perception flash cards

What is meant by the term “nature” in developmental psychology?

refers to traits and abilities that are innate and genetically determined, meaning they are present at birth and not learned through experience.

A newborn baby can recognize faces shortly after birth without being taught. Does this best reflect nature or nurture, and why?

This reflects nature because the ability appears without learning and is likely biologically programmed.

What is meant by the term “nurture” in developmental psychology?

refers to traits and behaviors that are learned through experience, environment, and interaction with others.

A child learns to speak English because they grow up in an English-speaking household. Is this an example of nature or nurture, and why?

This is nurture because language is learned through environmental exposure.

What is a critical period in development?

is a specific and limited time window during development when certain experiences must occur for normal development, and if they do not, the ability may be permanently impaired.

In studies where kittens had their eyes sewn shut early in life and later showed permanent blindness, what concept is being demonstrated and what does it show?

This demonstrates a critical period, showing that visual input must occur during a specific early time window for normal vision to develop.

What is a sensitive period in development?

is a time when an organism is especially responsive to learning certain skills, but learning can still occur later with more difficulty.

A person learns a second language easily as a child but struggles as an adult. What concept does this illustrate and why?

This illustrates a sensitive period, because learning is easier during a certain time but still possible later.

What is imprinting and what are its defining characteristics?

is a rapid form of learning that occurs early in life where an organism forms an attachment to the first moving object it sees. It is time-limited, irreversible, and does not require reinforcement.

In Konrad Lorenz’s experiment, baby geese followed him instead of their mother. What concept does this demonstrate and why?

This demonstrates imprinting, because the geese formed an attachment to the first moving object they saw during a critical early period.

What is habituation in infant development?

is the process by which an infant gradually stops responding to a repeated stimulus, indicating learning and memory.

A baby stops looking at a toy after seeing it many times. What concept does this demonstrate and what does it suggest about the baby’s cognition?

This demonstrates habituation, suggesting the baby has learned and remembers the stimulus

What is dishabituation?

occurs when a new stimulus restores attention after habituation, showing the infant can detect differences.

After becoming bored with one image, a baby looks at a new image with renewed interest. What concept is this and what does it show?

This is dishabituation, showing the infant can distinguish between stimuli.

What is the preferential looking method used in infant research?

It is a method where researchers measure how long infants look at different stimuli to determine preference and perceptual ability.

If a baby looks longer at a face than a plain shape, what does this suggest and what method is being used?

This suggests the baby prefers or recognizes faces, and the method used is preferential looking.

What is the discrepancy principle in infant perception?

It states that infants pay the most attention to stimuli that are moderately different from what they already know, rather than very familiar or very different stimuli.

A baby ignores a very familiar toy and also ignores a completely unfamiliar object but pays attention to a slightly new version of a toy. What principle explains this behavior?

This is explained by the discrepancy principle, because the baby prefers moderately novel stimuli.

What is meant by object perception in infancy?

is the ability to understand that objects are whole and continuous even when partially hidden.

In the Kellman and Spelke experiment, infants saw a rod moving behind a block and later treated it as one object. What does this demonstrate?

This demonstrates object perception, showing infants can perceive partially hidden objects as whole.

What is depth perception and how is it tested in infants?

is the ability to perceive distance and three-dimensional space, often tested using the visual cliff experiment.

In the visual cliff experiment, crawling infants avoided the “deep” side. What does this indicate about their development?

This indicates that depth perception has developed, and experience (like crawling) plays a role.

What is the trichromatic theory of color vision?

It states that color vision is based on three types of cones in the retina sensitive to red, green, and blue light, and all colors are perceived through combinations of these.

If mixing red and green light produces the perception of yellow, what theory explains this and how?

This is explained by the trichromatic theory, because different cone activations combine to produce color perception

What is the opponent-process theory of color vision?

It states that color perception is controlled by opposing color pairs such as red vs green and blue vs yellow.

After staring at a red image, a person sees a green afterimage. What theory explains this and why?

This is explained by the opponent-process theory, because opposing color systems become fatigued and produce the opposite color.

What is synesthesia?

is a condition where stimulation of one sensory modality automatically triggers another sensory experience.

A person hears music and sees colors at the same time. What condition does this describe and what is happening?

This describes synesthesia, where one sense (hearing) triggers another (vision).

A researcher deprives a kitten of visual input during early development. The kitten later shows permanent vision loss. What concept does this BEST demonstrate?

Critical period

A baby stops responding to a repeated sound but responds when a new sound is introduced. What does this show?

Habituation and dishabituation

Which theory argues that perception is unified at birth?

Ecological Theory

Which theory explains why you cannot see “reddish-green”?

Opponent-process theory

Explain the difference between a critical period and a sensitive period. Include an example of each.

A critical period is a fixed time where development must occur or it will not happen properly, such as vision in kittens. A sensitive period is when learning is easiest but still possible later, such as language learning.

Describe the visual cliff experiment and explain what it tells us about development.

The visual cliff uses a glass surface to create the illusion of a drop. Crawling infants avoid the deep side, showing they can perceive depth. This suggests that depth perception develops with both maturation and experience.

What is habituation and why is it important for studying infants?

Habituation is when infants stop responding to repeated stimuli. It is important because it shows that infants can learn and remember information.

Compare trichromatic theory and opponent-process theory.

Trichromatic theory explains how the eye detects color using three cones (red, green, blue). Opponent-process theory explains how the brain processes color using opposing pairs (red-green, blue-yellow). Together, they explain color vision at different stages.

A 2-month-old infant is shown a stimulus repeatedly until they stop responding. When shown a slightly different stimulus, they show moderate interest, but when shown a completely different stimulus, they lose interest again.

Question: What principle explains this behavior and why?

This is explained by the discrepancy principle, which states that infants prefer stimuli that are moderately different from what they already know, but not too familiar or too different.

Two kittens are raised in the dark. One is later allowed to move freely, while the other is placed in a device where it cannot control its movement. Only one develops normal depth perception.

Question: What study is this and what does it show?

This is the Held and Hein kitten carousel experiment. It shows that active movement is necessary for developing depth perception, not just visual experience.

A person stares at a blue image for 30 seconds and then looks at a white wall and sees yellow.

Question: What theory explains this and what is happening?

This is explained by the opponent-process theory, where the blue-yellow system becomes fatigued and produces the opposite color (yellow).

A person hears music and consistently sees specific colors associated with different notes.

Question: What condition is this and what is the likely explanation?

This is synesthesia, likely caused by increased connections or cross-activation between sensory areas in the brain.

In the imprinting study conducted by Konrad Lorenz, newly hatched geese followed Lorenz instead of their biological mother. Describe how this study was conducted and explain its significance for understanding development.

Lorenz ensured that he was the first moving object the geese saw after hatching, so they followed him instead of their mother. This study demonstrated that imprinting occurs during a critical period, is rapid, and does not require learning or reinforcement, showing that some behaviors are biologically programmed.

In classic kitten deprivation studies on visual development, researchers sewed kittens’ eyes shut for different lengths of time early in life. Explain how this study was conducted and what it revealed about critical periods.

Researchers prevented visual input by sewing kittens’ eyes shut during early development and then later reopening them. Kittens deprived of vision during a specific early window showed permanent visual impairment, demonstrating that vision depends on stimulation during a critical period.

In studies of monocular deprivation, one eye of a kitten was closed while the other remained open. Describe what researchers observed in the brain and explain the significance of these findings.

Neurons in the brain reorganized to favor the open eye, while connections for the closed eye weakened. This showed that the brain is plastic and that early experience can physically shape neural connections.

In the kitten carousel experiment conducted by Richard Held and Alan Hein, one kitten actively moved while another was passively moved but received the same visual input. Describe how this study was conducted and explain its significance.

Two kittens were placed in a device where one controlled movement and the other was moved passively. Only the active kitten developed normal depth perception. This showed that self-produced movement is necessary for perceptual development, not just visual exposure.

In preferential looking studies conducted by Robert Fantz, infants were shown two different visual stimuli at the same time. Explain how this method works and what these studies revealed about infant perception.

Researchers measured how long infants looked at each stimulus. Infants consistently looked longer at complex or patterned images, showing that they can see, discriminate, and prefer certain visual stimuli early in life.

In habituation studies of infant perception, researchers repeatedly present the same stimulus until the infant’s response decreases. Explain how this method works and what it reveals about infant cognition.

Infants are shown a stimulus repeatedly until they lose interest. When a new stimulus is introduced, attention increases. This shows that infants can learn, remember, and detect differences, indicating early cognitive processing.

In the object perception study by Philip Kellman and Elizabeth Spelke, infants were shown a rod partially hidden behind a block. Describe how the study was conducted and what it revealed about perception.

Infants were habituated to a rod moving behind a block. When tested, they recognized it as a single object rather than separate pieces. This showed that infants can perceive object unity, especially when motion cues are present.

In the visual cliff experiment conducted by Eleanor Gibson and Richard Walk, infants were placed on a glass-covered surface that appeared to have a drop-off. Explain how this study was conducted and what it demonstrated

Infants were placed on a glass platform with a patterned surface that created the illusion of depth. Crawling infants avoided the “deep” side. This demonstrated that depth perception develops with experience, especially through movement.

In high-amplitude sucking experiments, infants control the presentation of stimuli through their sucking behavior. Explain how this method works and what it has revealed about infant abilities.

Infants suck on a pacifier, and their sucking rate controls what they hear or see. Increased sucking indicates interest. This method has shown that infants can discriminate sounds and show preferences, such as preferring their mother’s voice.

In studies using the method of evoked potentials (EEG), researchers place electrodes on an infant’s head while presenting stimuli. Explain how this method works and why it is important.

EEG records brain activity in response to stimuli. Different stimuli produce different brain wave patterns. This allows researchers to study perception without requiring behavioral responses, which is useful for infants.

In experiments supporting trichromatic theory, participants matched colors by mixing red, green, and blue light. Explain how this method works and what it revealed about vision.

Participants adjusted mixtures of three lights to match any color. Since all colors could be created this way, researchers concluded that the eye has three types of cones, each sensitive to different wavelengths.

In afterimage experiments used to support opponent-process theory, participants stared at a colored stimulus and then reported seeing the opposite color. Explain how this occurs and what it reveals.

Staring at one color fatigues certain visual neurons. When looking away, the opposing color system becomes active, producing an afterimage. This shows that color is processed in opposing pairs in the brain.

In studies of color constancy, objects appear to maintain the same color under different lighting conditions. Explain how researchers study this and what it reveals about perception.

Researchers change lighting conditions and observe whether perceived color changes. The brain adjusts for lighting differences, showing that perception involves interpretation, not just raw sensory input.

In brain imaging studies of synesthesia, researchers found that multiple sensory areas activate when a single stimulus is presented. Explain what this suggests about the condition.

This suggests that synesthesia is caused by cross-activation between sensory brain regions, meaning areas that are usually separate are more connected.

What is the difference between habituation and dishabituation, and how are they used together to study infant perception?

Habituation is when an infant’s response to a repeated stimulus decreases over time, showing learning and memory. Dishabituation occurs when a new stimulus is introduced and the infant’s attention increases again. Together, they show that infants can remember information and detect differences between stimuli.

What is the discrepancy principle, and why is it important for understanding infant attention?

The discrepancy principle states that infants pay the most attention to stimuli that are moderately different from what they already know. It is important because it explains why infants do not respond strongly to stimuli that are either too familiar or too unfamiliar.

Explain how motion contributes to object perception in infancy, based on research.

Motion helps infants connect separate visual elements into a single object. Research by Philip Kellman and Elizabeth Spelke showed that infants were more likely to perceive a partially hidden rod as one object when it was moving. This suggests that motion provides important cues for understanding object continuity.

What are binocular and monocular cues, and when do they develop in infancy?

Binocular cues require both eyes and include depth cues like retinal disparity, developing around 3–5 months. Monocular cues require only one eye, such as interposition, and develop later around 6–7 months. These cues help infants perceive depth and distance.

What is intermodal perception, and what are the two main theories explaining it?

Intermodal perception is the ability to integrate information from multiple senses into one experience. The constructivist theory (associated with Jean Piaget) suggests infants must learn to combine senses. The ecological theory argues that perception is unified at birth and becomes more refined over time

What is color constancy, and why is it important for everyday perception?

Color constancy is the ability to perceive an object as having the same color under different lighting conditions. It is important because it allows us to recognize objects reliably even when lighting changes.

Explain the difference between additive and subtractive color mixing.

Additive mixing involves combining light (red, green, blue) to produce colors, eventually creating white. Subtractive mixing involves combining pigments (like paint), which absorb light and produce darker colors, eventually leading to black.

What are metamers, and why are they important in understanding color perception?

Metamers are physically different combinations of wavelengths that appear as the same color to the human eye. They are important because they show that color perception depends on how the brain interprets signals, not just the physical properties of light.

What is synesthesia, and what are two possible neurological explanations for it?

Synesthesia is a condition where stimulation of one sense triggers another sensory experience. It may be caused by cross-activation between brain areas or reduced neural pruning during development.

How does operant conditioning occur in infancy, and what is an example from research?

Operant conditioning occurs when infants learn to associate their actions with consequences. For example, infants learn to kick their legs to move a mobile, reinforcing the behavior.

Why can two different wavelength combinations produce the same perceived color?

Because of metamers — the visual system interprets different wavelength combinations as the same due to cone responses.

Why might younger infants show interest in the visual cliff but not fear, while older infants avoid it?

Younger infants can detect depth but lack experience with movement, while older infants (who crawl) have learned to associate depth with danger.

Why is the ecological theory considered more optimistic than the constructivist theory?

Because it suggests infants are born with a unified perceptual system, rather than needing to build it from scratch.

A baby shows increased attention to a stimulus that is slightly different from one they have seen before, but ignores a completely new stimulus. Why might this occur?

Because of the discrepancy principle — infants prefer stimuli that are moderately different, not extremely unfamiliar.

Color constancy means that colors never change under different lighting conditions. True or False

False

Intermodal perception refers to using only one sense at a time. True or False

False

Infants prefer stimuli that are either completely familiar or completely new.

False

What is a critical period in visual development, based on kitten research?

A critical period is a limited time window early in life when visual stimulation must occur for normal vision to develop. If this stimulation is missing, deficits are often permanent.

In kitten studies where eyes were sewn shut, what did researchers do and what did they find?

Researchers deprived kittens of vision by sewing their eyes shut during early development. Kittens that did not receive visual input during the critical period developed permanent blindness, even after their eyes were reopened.

Why is the critical period study important for understanding human development?

It shows that timing matters in development, meaning certain abilities must develop during specific windows or they may not develop properly at all.

What were horizontal and vertical goggles in kitten experiments?

These were special goggles that only allowed kittens to see one type of visual pattern (either horizontal or vertical lines).

What happened to kittens raised with horizontal-only goggles?

They could only perceive horizontal lines and were unable to recognize vertical patterns.

What is the significance of the goggle experiments?

They showed that perception is shaped by experience — the brain develops based on what it is exposed to during the critical period.

In the study by Antonini and Stryker, what was done to kittens and what was observed?

Researchers deprived visual input to one or both eyes. They found that the brain reorganized so that the non-deprived eye became stronger, while the deprived eye lost connections.

What does “reorganization” mean in this context?

It means the brain physically changes its structure based on experience, showing neuroplasticity.

Which kitten suffered more impairment: one with one eye closed or both eyes closed, and why?

The kitten with one eye closed suffered more functional imbalance because the open eye took over brain resources, weakening the deprived eye permanently.

What does “suffering from impairment” mean in these studies?

It means the kitten has reduced or abnormal ability to see or process visual information due to lack of proper development.

. What is the forced-choice preference method in infant research?

A method where infants are shown two stimuli, and researchers determine preference based on which one they look at longer.

What is Davida Teller’s acuity test card and how does it work?

It presents striped patterns on one side and blank space on the other. If infants can see the stripes, they will look toward that side.

What does it mean if infants consistently look to one side in this test?

It means they can detect patterns, showing their level of visual acuity.

What is the method of evoked potentials and how is it used in infants?

Electrodes measure brain activity in response to stimuli, allowing researchers to see how the brain processes sensory input.

Why is this method important?

It provides objective brain data, even when infants cannot respond behaviorally.

What is the high-amplitude sucking method?

Infants control stimulus presentation by sucking on a pacifier; stronger sucking = more interest.

What has this method revealed about infants?

Infants can discriminate stimuli and show preferences, such as recognizing voices.

What types of patterns do infants prefer between 0–2 months?

They prefer high-contrast, moderately complex, and moving patterns.

Why do infants prefer moderately complex patterns instead of very complex ones?

Because their vision is still developing, so extremely complex patterns are harder to process.

What is a schema in infant perception?

A schema is a mental representation of a stimulus that helps infants recognize and organize information.

What did Jerome Kagan propose about infants at 2 months?

He proposed that infants begin forming schemas and use them to guide attention and perception.

What is the discrepancy principle and what study supports it?

Infants prefer stimuli that are moderately different from their schema. Studies showed infants paid more attention to moderately novel stimuli than very familiar or very different ones.

What did Philip Kellman and Elizabeth Spelke study about object perception?

They studied whether infants perceive partially hidden objects as whole.

. What did younger vs older infants perceive in this study? Kellman & Spelke Study

• Younger infants saw separate pieces

• Older infants saw one complete object

Why was this study important? Kellman and Spelke

It showed that object perception develops over time and depends on experience and motion cues.

What is size constancy?

The ability to perceive an object as the same size despite distance changes.

What are movement cues (1–3 months) and why are they important?

They use motion to judge depth early on, helping infants begin understanding space.

What are binocular cues (3–5 months)?

Depth cues requiring both eyes, such as comparing images from each eye.

What are pictorial (monocular) cues (6–7 months), and why are they important?

Cues like overlap and perspective that use one eye. Their development shows infants can interpret 2D images as 3D space.