hinduism

Itihasa

Sanskrit for “thus indeed it was” – a genre of ancient Indian epic literature that blends history, myth, and moral instruction. The two main itihasas are the Mahābhārata and the Rāmāyaṇa.

Vyasa

The sage traditionally credited with compiling the Mahābhārata (including the Bhagavad Gita) and the Purāṇas. He is also a character in the epic, father of Pandu and Dhritarashtra.

Bhishma

Son of King Shantanu and the goddess Ganga. Took a vow of lifelong celibacy and loyalty to the throne of Hastinapura. A central Kaurava commander in the Mahābhārata war.

Pandu

Younger brother of Dhritarashtra, father of the five Pandavas (by his wives Kunti and Madri, fathered by gods). Cursed to die if he ever had sex.

Dhritarashtra

The blind king of Hastinapura, father of the 100 Kauravas (led by Duryodhana). His favoritism toward his own sons fuels the epic’s conflict.

The five Pandavas

Yudhishthira (dharma/righteousness), Bhima (strength), Arjuna (archery), Nakula, and Sahadeva (twins, beauty and wisdom). Sons of Pandu, rightful heirs to the throne.

The Kauravas

The 100 sons of Dhritarashtra and Gandhari, led by the jealous Duryodhana. Rivals of the Pandavas; their demand for the throne leads to the Kurukshetra War.

Karna

Son of Kunti and the sun god Surya, born before her marriage. Abandoned and raised by a charioteer. A great warrior loyal to Duryodhana; a tragic figure of loyalty and generosity.

Duryodhana

The eldest Kaurava, embodiment of envy and pride. Refuses to yield any portion of the kingdom to the Pandavas, leading to the war.

Gandhari

Wife of Dhritarashtra, who blindfolds herself for life to share her husband’s blindness. Mother of the 100 Kauravas.

Kunti

Mother of the Pandavas (and secretly of Karna). Had a boon to summon any god, which she used to bear the Pandavas. A wise and sorrowful figure

Draupadi

Daughter of King Drupada, wife to all five Pandavas (polyandry). Her humiliation in the dice scene is a major trigger for the Kurukshetra War. Symbol of righteous anger.

The dice scene

A pivotal moment in the Mahābhārata where Yudhishthira loses his kingdom, brothers, himself, and Draupadi in a rigged dice game against the Kauravas. Draupadi’s humiliation sets the war in motion.

Krishna

An avatar of Vishnu. In the Mahābhārata, he serves as Arjuna’s charioteer and spiritual guide, delivering the Bhagavad Gita. Upholds dharma through strategic, sometimes unscrupulous means.

Devī

Sanskrit for “goddess.” The supreme female divine power (Mahadevi). Appears as Durga, Kali, Lakshmi, Saraswati, etc. The Devīmāhātmya extols her as creator and destroyer.

Śakti

The dynamic, creative, energetic power of the divine, often personified as the goddess. In Shaktism and tantra, it is the female principle that animates the male god (e.g., Shiva’s consort).

Durga

A fierce form of the goddess who slays the buffalo demon Mahishasura. Represents triumph of good over evil. Worshipped during Navaratri. Central to the Devīmāhātmya.

Devīmāhātmya

A 5th–6th century CE Sanskrit text, part of the Mārkaṇḍeya Purāṇa. A foundational scripture of Shaktism, narrating the goddess’s battles with demons as the supreme reality.

Ṣaṣṭhī

A goddess associated with children and fertility. Worshipped on the sixth day after birth and during childhood illnesses to protect infants from disease and evil spirits.

Tīrtha

A sacred pilgrimage site, often a river (especially the Ganges), lake, mountain, or temple. Literally “ford” or “crossing place.” Visiting purifies sins and aids liberation (moksha).

Nirguṇa

The conception of the divine as without qualities, form, or attributes. Associated with the Upanishadic Brahman and poet-saints like Kabir who reject idol worship.

Saguṇa

The conception of the divine with qualities, attributes, and form (e.g., Vishnu, Shiva, or Rama). Bhakti traditions worship saguṇa deities through idols and images.

Sant

A saint or poet-saint in the Bhakti tradition, especially in North India. Sants like Kabir and Ravidas promoted nirguṇa bhakti, criticizing caste and religious orthodoxy.

Bhakta

A devotee who practices bhakti (loving devotion) to a personal god (saguṇa) or the formless divine (nirguṇa). Bhaktas express their relationship through poetry, song, and worship.

Kabir

A 15th-century mystic poet-saint critical of both Hinduism and Islam. Taught nirguṇa bhakti using earthy, paradoxical language. His followers are the Kabir Panth.

Benares / Varanasi

One of the holiest cities in Hinduism, on the Ganges. A major tīrtha for death and liberation (moksha). Kabir lived and worked here as a weaver; also central to Shiva worship.

Kabir Panth

The religious community and sect that follows Kabir’s teachings. Emphasizes formless (nirguṇa) devotion, rejection of idol worship, and social equality.

Mīrābāī

A 16th-century Rajput princess and poet-saint devoted to Krishna (saguṇa bhakti). Wrote ecstatic love poems in Braj Bhasha. Defied patriarchal and caste norms.

Tulsidas

A 16th-century poet-saint who wrote the Rāmcaritmānas (retelling of the Ramayana in Awadhi). Emphasized saguṇa bhakti to Rama but also reconciled nirguṇa and saguṇa.

Rāmcaritmānas

Epic poem by Tulsidas (c. 1575 CE) in Awadhi Hindi. Retells the story of Rama. Widely recited in North India as a scripture; central to Ramlila performances.

Rāmlīlā

A dramatic folk performance of the Ramayana, especially during the festival of Dashahara. Chapters of the Rāmcaritmānas are enacted over days.

Hindu “Reformation”

19th-century reform movements (Brahmo Samaj, Arya Samaj) that reinterpreted Hinduism by rejecting idol worship, caste, and ritualism, and emphasizing reason, monotheism, and social reform.

Seva

Selfless service. In modern Hindu reform and activist contexts (Gandhi, Swaminarayan, Mahasveta Devi), seva is a spiritual practice of helping others.

Ārya Samāj

A Hindu reform movement founded by Swami Dayananda Saraswati (1875). Rejects idol worship, caste, and child marriage, advocating a return to the Vedas and social reform.

Brahmō Samāj

A 19th-century Bengali reform movement founded by Ram Mohan Roy (1828). Opposed sati, idolatry, and caste; promoted monotheism based on Upanishads and reason.

Swaminarayan

A 19th-century Gujarati saint and founder of the Swaminarayan Sampradaya. Emphasized moral discipline, bhakti to Narayana, and social service (seva).

Rabindranath Tagore

Bengali poet, philosopher, first non-European Nobel laureate (1913). Reinterpreted Hindu themes (Upanishads, devotional poetry) in a universalist, humanist key. Wrote Gitanjali.

Mohandas Gandhi

Leader of Indian independence. Transformed classical Hindu concepts – ahimsa (nonviolence), satyagraha (truth-force), seva – into political tools. Saw the Gita as allegory for inner struggle.

Mahasveta Devi

A 20th–21st century Bengali writer and activist. Exposed oppression of tribal communities. Transformed the epic figure of Draupadi and the goddess as protectors of the marginalized.

In the Mahābhārata, why is the dice scene considered by some to be the fulcrum of the epic?

The dice scene is the tipping point because it publicly humiliates Draupadi and the Pandavas. Draupadi’s question – “Is Yudhishthira’s own person his to stake when he has already lost himself?” – exposes the collapse of dharma. The Kauravas’ refusal to restore her honour makes war inevitable. Without this scene, a peaceful compromise might have been possible.

The battle in the Mahābhārata occurs at the start of the Kali Yuga (age of vice). How can we understand Krishna’s actions in the war in light of this fact?

At the start of Kali Yuga, dharma is already declining. Krishna’s actions – including strategic deceptions (e.g., encouraging Yudhishthira to lie about Ashwatthama) and killing his own cousin – are seen as necessary to restore cosmic balance. He acts as a yogamaya who uses evil to destroy evil, accelerating the end of a corrupt age so that a new cycle may eventually begin. In the Gita, he teaches Arjuna that duty (svadharma) in a fallen age requires tough choices beyond conventional morality.

How does the Mahābhārata end? What happens to the Pandavas and Draupadi? To the Kauravas?

After the war, Yudhishthira rules for 36 years. Then they renounce the kingdom and begin a pilgrimage toward the Himalayas. One by one (Draupadi, Sahadeva, Nakula, Arjuna, Bhima) fall and die, each unable to complete the journey due to hidden flaws. Only Yudhishthira reaches the gates of heaven, where he is tested. The Kauravas all die in the war (except Yuyutsu, who surrenders). In the end, the Pandavas and Kauravas are reunited in heaven, having shed their earthly bodies and enmities.

What role does Ṣaṣṭhī play in protecting children?

Ṣaṣṭhī is a goddess of fertility and children. On the sixth day after birth, a ritual honours her to protect the newborn from disease and evil spirits. She is also worshipped when children are ill. She is often depicted riding a cat and nursing a baby – embodying maternal care and fierce protection.

How is Devī (in her various forms) described in the Devīmāhātmya?

She is described as the supreme, autonomous power who creates, preserves, and destroys the universe. In the text, she takes various forms: Durga (warrior on a lion), Kali (black, tongue out, drinking demon blood), Ambika, and Chandika. Each form emerges to slay a demon (Mahishasura, Shumbha, Nishumbha). She is called Mahāmāyā (great illusion) and Śakti, but unlike a consort goddess, she acts independently – male gods give her their weapons but cannot defeat her.

What are tīrthas and why are they important?

Tīrthas are sacred pilgrimage sites (rivers, mountains, temples, cities like Varanasi). They are “crossing places” where the divine and human worlds meet. Pilgrimage (tīrtha-yatra) is a meritorious act that washes away sins (pāpa), aids ancestors, and can lead to moksha. They also create community and regional identity.

What role did regional languages play in the development of Bhakti devotionalism?

Bhakti movements used vernacular languages (Tamil, Marathi, Hindi, Awadhi, Braj, Bengali) instead of Sanskrit. This made devotion accessible to women, lower castes, and the uneducated. Poets like Mirabai (Braj), Tulsidas (Awadhi), and Kabir (Hindi/Punjabi mix) created powerful, emotional poetry that spread rapidly. Regional languages allowed bhakti to become a mass movement, bypassing Brahminical rituals and Sanskrit exclusivity.

How do Kabir, Tulsidas, and Mirabai critique established religious institutions of their time?

• Kabir (nirguṇa) attacks both Hindu temple worship and Muslim mosque prayers, calling them empty rituals. He rejects caste and pilgrimage.

• Tulsidas (saguṇa) criticises brahmins who perform rituals without devotion, and he elevates Rama as accessible to all, regardless of caste. However, he remains more orthodox than Kabir.

• Mirabai rejects patriarchal norms (she leaves her royal husband) and temple hierarchies, singing to Krishna openly. She also dismisses caste distinctions.

Compare/contrast the bhakti poetry of Kabir, Mirabai, and Tulsidas. What do they share in common? Differences?

Common: All use vernacular language, reject caste and empty ritual, and emphasise personal devotion (bhakti) over priestly mediation.
Differences:

• Kabir – nirguṇa (formless God, often called Ram but not the epic hero). Uses sharp, paradoxical, sometimes anti-social images. No idol worship.

• Mirabai – saguṇa (Krishna as lover). Intensely emotional, ecstatic, even erotic. She merges with the divine through longing and loss.

• Tulsidas – saguṇa (Rama as perfect king/husband). More orderly and narrative. He upholds social duties (dharma) while criticising hypocritical brahmins. Reconciler of nirguṇa and saguṇa (Rama as both formless and embodied).

Why would Mirabai not be consistent with a nirguṇa theological position?

Nirguṇa bhakti (Kabir, Nanak) holds that the divine has no form, qualities, or personal attributes – no loving relationship with a human. Mirabai, however, constantly describes Krishna as a dark-skinned cowherd, a flute player, a lover – full of qualities (saguṇa). She writes of touching his feet, dancing with him, and feeling his absence as separation from a beloved person. That cannot be a formless absolute.

How did Tulsidas work to reconcile nirguṇa and saguṇa aspects of the divine?

In the Rāmcaritmānas, Tulsidas presents Rama as both the transcendent, formless Brahman (nirguṇa) and the personal, compassionate lord (saguṇa). He argues that the formless is too difficult for most people; thus God takes form out of love. He writes: “The formless is like the wish-fulfilling gem… but the embodied Lord is within reach.” This allows worship of an idol while acknowledging a higher reality – a synthesis that became very popular.

How do Rabindranath Tagore, Mahatma Gandhi, and Mahasveta Devi transform key themes from classical Hindu thought?

• Tagore – Reinterprets Upanishadic monism (Brahman) as a universal humanism. Turns devotional poetry into a celebration of this-worldly joy and creativity (Gitanjali).

• Gandhi – Transforms the Bhagavad Gita: war becomes an allegory for inner struggle against evil. Reinterprets ahimsa (nonviolence) from a private virtue into a mass political weapon (satyagraha).

• Mahasveta Devi – Recasts Draupadi (from the epic) as a tribal woman raped by police. The goddess Durga appears as the furious mother of oppressed adivasis. She uses classical epic tropes to expose state violence and to give voice to the marginalised.