Sociology - Belief Systems : Theory of Religion - Feminism and Post-modernism

How do Feminists see religion?

- Many feminists see religion as a patriarchal institution that reflects and perpetuates this inequality. Religious belief functions as a patriarchal ideology that legitimates female.

- Like Marxists, many feminists believe religion is a conservative force, preventing change and maintaining the power of most powerful group in society. Feminists believe this group to be men.

What examples can Religion be seen to be patriarchal?

Religious Organisation - Catholic Priests & Orthodox Judaism forbid women from being priests. Karen Armstrong (1993) sees women's exclusivism from the priesthood of most religions is evidence of marginalisation.

Places of Worship - Women's participation may be restricted e.g. not being allowed to preach or read sacred texts. Taboos may also regard menstruation, pregnancy & childbirth to prevent participation. Jean Holm (1994) describes this as the devaluation of women in contemporary religion.

Sacred Texts - Sacred texts feature the doings of male gods, prophets & usually written and interpreted by men.

Religious Laws and Customs - Religious laws and customs may give women fewer rights than men. Many religions legitimate and regulate women's traditional domestic & reproductive role e.g. Catholic Church bans abortions & artificial contraception. Woodhead (2002) argues the exclusion of women from the Catholic priesthood is evidence of the Church's unease about emancipation of women generally.

How can Islam be seen as patriarchal?

- Morally and legally, a Muslim man has full responsibility for his family in return for their loyalty and obedience.

- A woman can wear whatever she likes in the presence of her husband, family or female friends, but she is expected to cover her body when she goes out.

- Divorce laws favour men. A man may divorce his wife simply by stating it three times in front of witnesses. However, a woman must go to court and prove serious misconduct.

How Hinduism be seen as Patriarchal?

- Unmarried women have to obey their fathers, married women have to obey their husbands, and widowed women have to obey their sons.

- The patriarchal family is the ideal. The traditional ideal women is one that is subordinate and inferior to men.

What did Simon de Beauvoir argue for religion being Patriarchal?

- In her 'The Second Sex' (1949), she portrayed religion as an instrument of male domination. Her view is that religion is used by the oppressors to control the oppressed group. - - Men usually control religious organisations and claim that their authority from God.

- She also argued that religion gives women a false belief that their suffering and their second-class status will be rewarded in heaven. Religion therefore gives women a form of class consciousness.

What does Nawal El Saadawi (1980) argue about religion being Patriarchal?

- El Saadawi is an Egyptian and Muslim feminist, who takes an even more radical stance.

- In 'The Hidden Face of Eve' she argues that women are sometimes seriously oppressed in Islamic states. She points to the practice of FGM (Female Genital Mutilation). She has herself been the victim of female circumcision, in which part of her clitoris was amputated. This practice serves the interests of men enhancing their enjoyment and limiting the sexual pleasure for women.

- Her argument is that it's not Islam itself, which oppresses women, but by the way men misinterpret the Quran. However, she does view some aspects of Islam positively. For example, women keep their name (and identity) when they marry.

What does Karen Armstrong argue about religion being patriarchal?

- She argues that religion wasn't always patriarchal. Until 4000 years ago, it was the opposite and women in early history were central to spirituality. Archaeologists have found large numbers of symbols of the Greater Mother Goddess.

- In early history, people worshipped the god of nature - they were relied upon for good weather, fertile lad, abundant food, healthy offspring etc - and the female sex was seen as being closer to nature.

- Even today in the New Age religions, such as the PAgan witchcradt-based Wicca, there are female goddesses.

What do other voices say religion being Patriarchial

Many would disagree that religion is necessarily patriarchal.

- Aldridge points to the equality between men and women in Quakerism.

- Wright refers to reform Judaism where women have been allowed to become rabbis since 1972.

- There is no longer a requirement in the Christian marriage ceremony to 'obey' your husband.

- Gender-neutral language has been introduced in many hymns and prayers.

- The C of E also seen changes in its own legislation, allowing women to become ordained in 1992 and in 2014 women were allowed to become bishops.

What does Helen Watson (1994) argue about religion's liberatory potential for women?

- She argues that religion can actually be liberating for women.

- According to the Quran, women should exercise religious modesty or hijab because their seductiveness might lead men astray. Many writers, including some Islamic feminists have argued that this has been misinterpreted by men to mean that women must cover their bodies and faces in the presence of men, who are not relatives, with the patriarchal motive of controlling women.

- Western commentators also are critical of the practice, seeing it as evidence of repression. Julie Burchill (2001) writing in the Guardian commented, 'Such women carry round with them a mobile prison'.

- Watson demonstrated the veil also has the potential to liberate.

What is a evaluation of the Feminist view of religion?

- Liberal Feminists are the most optimistic in their outlook. They point to the Church of England as being success for women.

- Radical Feminists see all religions as patriarchal. Walby points to the stained glass ceiling, the traditional roles within religion and issues of menstruation that limits women's involvement.

- Marxist Feminists see religion as promoting false consciousness and preventing change. They see religion as a compensator.

The feminist debate ignores the following:

- Class and ethnicity

- secularisation

- and some feminists ignore the progress that has been made.

- Also, for many women religion is positive. It can be a source of comfort and support. Religion can also give women status and respect within the home and family. Woodhead argues that religion can allow women to negotiate their position and gain greater control and autonomy.

How do Post-modernists view religion?

- They believe that the classical perspective are out of date.

- People are now free to choose whichever religion we prefer, rather than having one dominant faith imposed upon us. It's like a Pick & Mix - we select bits of different faiths that appeal to us. Some argue that it is like a DIY cocktail.

What does Post-Modernist Lyotard argue about religion?

He argues that we are now living in a society that is dynamic and fluid due to the collapse of the METANARRATIVE (big story) resulting in lots of different narratives present in one society. Religion is becoming more personal to the individual and therefore we cannot generalise.

How do Post-modernists argue about the link between religion and science?

Postmodernists think that religion is becoming increasingly influenced by science. This is what has led to development of new religious movements (NRMs) and new age movements (NAMs) - more of this to come! The increase in science means that individuals have to balance both their view of religion and their view of science to fit in with their understanding of society.

What is an evaluation of Post-Modernist view of religion?

- Postmodernism does not recognised the functions religion gives us.

- The theory fails to recognise the control that religion has over certain groups in society.

- It doesn't see religion's role as very important.