final exam philosophy

Deontology

Ethical theories (like Kant’s) care about duty often despite consequences.

Immanuel Kant (1742-1804)

A German philosopher who came up with his own theory of ethics (which we call Kantian
ethics or Kant’s deontological ethics.)

Kant’s theory in a nutshell

Freely choosing to do the right thing because it is your duty.

Universal Rights

Every person is worthy of respect, not because we own ourselves but because we are rational beings.

Autonomous

Acting rationally. Being in control of your emotions.

Heteronomous

Acting irrationally. Letting your emotions control you.

Person

As opposed to human, human being, or individual. A person has certain moral and legal rights.
Persons should not be hurt without just cause. Sometimes, it is easiest to think of persons as beings like you.

Transhumanism

A philosophical movement that advocates for enhancing the human person beyond our current
biology

Super-longevity

A transhumanist concept about improving human beings by ending aging and age-related
diseases.

Super-intelligence

A transhumanist concept about improving human intelligence, usually by means of merging with technology.

Singularity

An event predicted by transhumanists where exponential AI growth causes uncontrollable, irreversible changes to human civilization

Superwell-being

A transhumanist concept about improving human biology so that humans can have lasting
happiness.

Categorical Imperative

Unconditional, bring moral obligation

Categorical Imperative #1 (Formula of universalizability)

Act only on the maxim that you can will as a universal law.

Categorical Imperative #2 (Formula of humanity or Formula of the End in itself)

Always treat humanity (yourself and others) never simply as a means but always at the same time as an end.

Categorical Imperative #3 (Formula of the kingdom of ends)

Act as if you were, through your actions, a law-making member of a kingdom of ends.

Moral Duty

An act which is necessary to respect moral law

Perfect/Imperfect Duties

Individuals have an obligation to always do perfect duties, and imperfect duties are respectable but not necessary. These duties are to ourselves and others. For example, perfect duties include no suicide or lying

Euthanasia

“Good death, ” the painless killing of a patient suffering from a terminal and/or painful disease

Active Euthanasia

Doing something to cause death; killing by active means

Passive Euthanasia

Stopping treatments rather than actively causing death.

Involuntary euthanasia

Against the will of the patient

Nonvoluntary euthanasia

The patient is unable to decide, so someone else makes the decision

Voluntary euthanasia

The patient chooses euthanasia for themselves (sometimes through advance directives or living wills)

Virtue

Character traits or habits of excellence; disposition

Golden Mean

Aristotle’s belief is that all virtues are virtues of the mean. That is, it is possible to
have too much and too little of a particular virtue.

Eudaimonia

Flourishing life or well-being or the Good life; the reason Aristotle believes we
should be ‘good.’

Phronesis

Practical wisdom; prudence. Aristotle’s central virtue which determines what
virtue/ how much of the virtue is needed in any particular situation.

Telos

Ultimate goal or aim; Aristotle also calls this the Final Cause. For Aristotle, all beings
have a telos connected to their nature.

Pacifism

War is always (morally) wrong. Can be a deontological commitment to against killing or a positive commitment to non-violence.

Realism (about war)

In war, we should do whatever is necessary to achieve victory. No “war-crimes.”
Consequentialist concerns, cost-benefit analysis.

Just war theory

War can be morally justified when applied in limited or focused ways.

Just ad bellum

Just reasons to go to war.
Include: Just cause, legitimate authority, proportionality, last resort, right intentions

Just in bello (including criteria)

Just actions in war.
Include: Proportionality, Discrimination, and prohibition of intrinsically evil means

Moral exemplars

Excellent moral examples

Ren

Virtue of benevolence or goodness

Li

Rituals or the correct moral actions.

The Five Cardinal relationships

For Confucius, these are the five basic relationships a person has: Ruler/Subject,
Father/Son, older sibling/younger sibling, Husband/Wife, and Friend/Friend. Each
individual in the relationship (e.g., The Father) has particular virtues that their role in the
relationship demands

Theories of Punishment

These are arguments for why we punish people.

Deterrence theory

(Utilitarian) This theory says we punish people to prevent future crime. Focuses specifically on the consequences of punishment.

Retributive Justice

This theory says we punish people in order to make wrong-doers pay for the crimes they have committed.

Restorative Justice

This theory seeks to heal wounds caused by crime. It says that we punish people so that they take responsibility and make amends for their actions. Goal is to restore broken trust in the community.