SAC 2

Sensation

The information or raw data from the environment detected by the sensory organs and converted into neural signals that travel along nerves to the brain, transmitted to the brain.

Sensory organs - eyes, ears, tongue, nose skin etc.

Sensation is a passive process

Perceptual process

The perceptual process involves bringing together all incoming sensory information and using existing knowledge to make sense of the sensory input. This may include information we have learned and stored in memory, as well as such information as our current motivational and emotional states and the situation in which the perceptual experience is taking place

Perception Definition

the mental process of recognizing, interpreting and giving meaning to the information received by the sense organs

perception is an active process

Sensory Information

information that is detected by sensory receptors from the internal and external environment and transmitted along sensory neural pathways to the CNS

Attention

The process of focusing on specific stimuli or aspects of the sensory environment whilst ignoring and therefore excluding others

The level of awareness directed towards certain stimuli at the exclusion of others

Three types of Attention

• Sustained

• Selective

• Divided

Sustained Attention

also known as vigilance, involves maintenance of attention on a specific stimulus or task for a continuous period of time without being distracted.

it’s an important cognitive ability that helps us efficiently and successfully carry out tasks and activities in our daily lives, specifically those that take a long time, are repetitive, and not interesting.

Sustained Attention Definition

the maintenance of a high degree of attention over a prolonged period.

Key characteristic of sustained attention

the more rare or unique a stimulus is, the greater a persons vigilance is likely to be when attending to it

Selective attention definition

focusing on a single activity and disregarding other environmental stimuli

Selective attention

involves choosing and attending to a specific stimulus while at the same time excluding other stimuli. You ‘select’ what you want to pay attention to and ignore less important stimuli.

when used successfully, selective attention enables you maintain the required level of performance in the presence of distracting stimuli.

Personal Importance

we are more likely to attend to a stimulus if it is important or meaningful to us

Factors that influence what we selectively attend to

• Personal importance

• Psychological state

• Motives

• Past experiences

• Changes in stimulation or the introduction of a novel stimulus

Psychological States

dynamic, temporary or relatively stable condition of the mind, including emotions, thoughts and awareness

Motives

our desires, which cause us to perceive stimuli that align with our goals as more salient

Changes in stimulation or the introduction of a novel stimulus

a stimulus that is new or unusual in some way will attract our attention

Divided Attention Definition

distributing attention to allow the processing of two or more stimuli at the same time

Divided attention

refers to the ability to distribute our attention so that two or more activities may be performed simultaneously.

it may involve the use of just one sense, or two or more

it can only be used effectively when it is not necessary to concentrate fully on either stimulus.

Divided attention stimuli

Where two or more stimuli rely on similar sensory systems (i.e., visual or auditory), it is harder to pay attention and process the information.

If two stimuli rely on different sensory systems, they can be processed simultaneously with little difficulty.

Automatic cognitive processing

a task that requires a low level of conscious awareness or mental effort

Controlled cognitive process

a cognitive task that requires a high level of conscious awareness and mental effort

Type of cognitive processing required

Sustained - controlled cognitive processing

Selective - controlled cognitive processing

Divided - automatic cognitive processing

Mental effort required

Sustained - a high level of mental effort required

Selective - a lot of mental effort required

Divided - little mental effort required

Focus of attention

Sustained - stimuli with some unpredictability

Selective - limited range of salient stimuli

Divided - multiple stimuli across tasks

Best suited for

Sustained - contexts in which new stimuli are likely to be encountered

Selective - focusing on particular stimuli and blocking out others

Divided - multitasking and switching between tasks

Type of task focused on

Sustained - can be used for simple or complex tasks

Selective - complex task

Divided - simple task

Potential for misperceptions

Sustained - the risk of misperception increases

• the longer you try to pay sustained attention

• the more difficult it is to pay attention

Selective - the risk of misperception is reduced because target stimuli are known

Divided - performance decreases if one or more of the tasks focused on are complex

Conclusion

A decision or judgement about the meaningfulness of the research results.

Population

The entire group of individuals that the researcher is interested in studying.

Sample

A subset of the population selected to participate in the study.

Sampling

The process of selecting participants from a population.

Random Sampling

Every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected.

Stratified Sampling

Population divided into subgroups (strata) and participants are randomly selected from each.

Convenience Sampling

Participants are selected based on availability and ease of access.

Experimental Group

The group exposed to the independent variable.

Control Group

The group not exposed to the independent variable; used for comparison

Random Allocation

Assigning participants to experimental or control groups by chance to reduce bias.

Independent Groups Design

Participants are allocated to one group only (either control or experimental).

Repeated Measures Design

The same participants take part in both conditions of the experiment.

Matched Participants Design

Participants are matched on key characteristics and then allocated to different groups.

Observational Study

A method where behaviour is observed and recorded without manipulation of variables.

Correlational Study

A method that examines the relationship between two variables without determining cause and effect.

Extraneous Variable

A variable other than the IV that may cause a change in the DV and therefore may affect the results.

Confounding Variable

A variable other than the IV that has had an effect on the DV which cannot be separated from that of the IV.

Descriptive Statistics

Describe, organise and summarise the data; they do not allow a researcher to explore the data for error

Percentages

A way of expressing data as a proportion out of 100.

Mean

The average value, calculated by adding all scores and dividing by the number of scores.

Median

The middle score in an ordered data set.

Mode

The most frequently occurring score in a data set.

Variability

The spread or distribution of data values in a dataset.

Range

The difference between the highest and lowest values in a dataset.

Standard Deviation

A measure of how spread out the data is around the mean.

Frequency Distribution Table

A table that shows how often each value occurs in a dataset.

True Value

The value, or range of values that would be found if the quantity could be measured perfectly.

Accuracy

How close a measurement is to the true value of the quantity being measured.

Precision

How close a set of measurement values are to each other.

Validity

Refers to whether a measurement measures what it is supposed to be measuring.

Internal Validity

Whether a study investigates what it sets out or claims to investigate.

External Validity

Whether the results of research can be applied to similar individuals in a different setting.

Reliability

Refers to the extent to which an assessment tool can produce results consistently.

Repeatability

How close successive measurements of the same quantity are when carried out under the same conditions.

Reproducibility

How close measurements of the same quantity are when carried out under different conditions.

Replicability

A term similar to reproducibility, applied to studies aiming to answer the same scientific question.

Random Error

Errors that affect the precision of measurement by creating unpredictable variations in the measurement process.

Systematic Error

Affect the accuracy of a measurement by causing readings to differ from the true value.

Uncertainty

A lack of exact knowledge of the value being measured.

Generalisation

A decision or judgment about how widely the findings of a research study can be applied.

Limitations

The faults or flaws in the design of an investigation that may limit the conclusions of that investigation.

Implications

The impact a study might have on the population, relevant theory and future research.

Personal Error

Errors made by the researcher, such as experimenter bias.