Psych exam 2 part 2!

Social identity theory

People’s self-esteem stems in part from their group memberships

Types of bias

Explicit, Subtle, Implicit (unconscious or automatic)

Hostile sexism

a blatant form of sexism that functions to maintain men’s societal dominance

Benevolent sexism

A subtle form of sexism that functions to maintain men’s societal dominance

Hostile racism

A blatant form of racism where people hold explicit negative feelings toward, and stereotypes about people of a certain racial group

Modern racism

A subtle form of racism where people reject explicitly racist beliefs, yet feel discomfort with or animosity toward people of a certain racial group

Implicit bias

A subtle, sometimes unconscious, form of bias where people hold associations about social categories that may contradict explicit self-report

Implicit Association Test

Weakly predicts discriminatory behavior, strongly predicts outcomes on aggregate levels (e.g., states, countries)

How can bias be reduced: Superordinate goals, Intergroup contact, Awareness of and motivation to override, Knowledge

Superordinate goals

high-level, shared objectives that require cooperation between two or more groups to achieve, often reducing conflict and breaking down "us vs. them" barriers

Allport’s theory of intergroup contact

Optimal contact conditions for reducing intergroup prejudice include Common goals, Cooperative environment, Groups have equal status in context, Institutional support

“The Marley Hypothesis”

Lacking knowledge of past racism in the United States predicts Whites’ denial of the extent to which racism continues to be a problem

5 factors to bring people together / form relationships

Proximity, familiarity, similarity, reciprocity, attractiveness and arousal

Propinquity effect

the tendency to form friendships or romantic relationships with people you encounter often

Functional distance

the likelihood of connection between people based on architectural design or environmental layout, rather than simple physical distance

Mere exposure effect

Repeated exposure to a stimulus (object or person) leads to greater liking

Universal features of physical attractiveness

Facial Symmetry, Clear skin, Youth, “Averageness”, Some exaggerated features (e.g., big or strikingly-colored eyes, big lips)

The halo effect

The common belief that physically attractive people also have other positive qualities

Sternberg’s Triangle Love Theory

love is: passion, intimacy, commitment

passion

physiological arousal, longing, sexual attraction

intimacy

close bond, sharing, support

commitment

willingness to remain with one another

how do passion, intimacy, and commitment combine?

3 factors that determine if people stay in a relationship (investment model of commitment)

Satisfaction Level: Rewards, good interactions (5:1), Quality of Alternatives: If you left this relationship, what would replace it?, Investment Size: What you have put into the relationship that will be lost if you leave

Social support

information that indicates you’re loved, cared for and valued by others; and that links you to a network with communication and mutual responsibility

Buffering hypothesis

the role of one’s social network in providing social support kicks in under stress

Emotion regulation

Processes that determine what emotions we feel, how we experience them, and how we express them to others

motivation for emotion regulation

Hedonic (to feel better/worse) and Instrumental (to do, to know, to relate, to be)

Implicit theories of emotion

core beliefs about whether emotions are fixed or malleable

believing that emotions are malleable…

Corresponds to greater emotion regulation self-efficacy, Corresponds to when and how people may attempt to alter emotional experiences, Corresponds to overall subjective experience and wellbeing

Long-term associations between self-control and life outcomes

Higher SAT scores, Better Educational attainment, Rated more socially competent as adolescents by parents, Higher self-esteem in adulthood, Lower BMI in adulthood, Lower drug use

role of attention in affecting self-control

How you think about a stimulus is more important than the stimulus itself

role of situation in affecting self-control

modifying your environment is very effective at increasing self-control

role of construal in affecting self-control

Effect: Focusing on global, abstract, and superordinate features (e.g., "studying to become a doctor") promotes self-control.

cynical view of helping

We help other people for selfish reasons.

positive view of helping

We help other people to increase their welfare, regardless of other consequences brought about by the helping behavior

Reciprocal altruism

You help me now, I’ll help you later

Social rewards theory of helping

Benefits like praise, positive attention, tangible rewards, and gratitude motivate helping behavior, Being viewed as altruistic earns people status and power

Personal rewards theory of helping

People are motivated to help to relieve their own personal distress, which is elicited when they see people suffering or in need

Empathic concern

produces an altruistic motive for helping, When people feel empathy for another, they will help for altruistic reasons, regardless of what self has to gain

Affective empathy

the ability to experience the feelings of other people

Cognitive empathy

the ability to rationally understand a person’s feelings and thoughts

Individual differences in ‘who helps’

People who are more “agreeable” more likely to help, Men and women help at similar rates but differ in what type of help they provide, People from lower, relative to higher, SES backgrounds help more, People in rural communities help more, People in cultural contexts where value of simpatia is present

Bystander effect

The phenomenon in which individuals do not offer help in emergency situation when other people are present

Step 1 model to helping

noticing a person, event, or situation that may require help

Step 2 model to helping

interpreting that help is needed

Step 3 model to helping

taking responsibility for helping

Step 4 model to helping

deciding how to help

Step 5 model to helping

helping

Reducing obstacles of the bystander effect

Distraction/Noticing → She notices you, Pluralistic ignorance / ambiguity → She should understand that help is needed, Diffusion of responsibility → She should understand that she is responsible for helping, Lack of competence → She should understand exactly how to provide help

Gottman’s four horseman of the apocalypse

Criticism → Gentle start-up, Defensiveness → Take responsibility, Contempt (mocking and expression of superiority) → Appreciation, Stonewalling → Self-soothing