SOC340 Exam 1

social institutions

there is no social institution that human reproduction hasn’t touched

• social institutions are often tied together

exs include:

• family

• education

• medicine

• media

• government

• labor/economy

family (social institution)

how “family” looks like/how we think about it has changed over time

• norm changed from having a big family with many kids ASAP → opting for not having kids or having kids later

Kids Getting Older Younger (KGOY)

a phenomenon where the age at which females in the US begin menstruating is getting earlier than 12 years old

• theories of the cause include:

  • increasing rates of obesity, which is linked to earlier menstruation

  • meta-messaging (exposure to media messages activate the pituitary gland earlier)

  • low SES → poor food/diet containing endocrine disruptors

• why we care:

  • females are becoming fertile younger

  • secondary sex characteristics are appearing earlier, impacting how people socialize with the child

  • kids are becoming physically mature before they’re mentally mature

  • girls might have higher depression rates due to developing earlier

how long is pregnancy?

around 40 weeks

a baby born at 37-40 weeks is considered full-term

1st trimester

1-12 weeks

• little physical signs of pregnancy

• morning sickness is common

• risk of miscarriage is highest

• mother placed under care of OB-GYN

2nd trimester

13-27 weeks

• rapid organ development in the fetus

• mother + fetus getting bigger and putting on weight

• where the point of viability is now

point of viability

the point at which a fetus will survive outside the womb

before 1970, a baby wouldn’t survive if it was delivered before 27 weeks

important politically, because abortion rights are based around the point of viability

3rd trimester

27 weeks-birth

• more weight gain

what was Phillipa’s and Jeff’s pregnancy/birth experiences like in Miracle of Birth?

they got pregnant naturally

• no third-party reproduction, like a surrogate or IVF

• it wasn’t easy for them to get pregnant

• their first child

Phillipa gave birth at home

• had a midwife

how did Indian mating norms clash with American mating norms in Meet the Patels?

Indian mating norms (what Ravi’s parents wanted for him):

• marrying within your culture

• rapidly meeting many partners

• marrying quickly

American mating norms:

• dating for long periods of time

• being in love before marrying

this clash caused tension between Ravi and his parents in the film

how did Meet the Patels show a change in reproductive processes over time?

Vasant, Ravi’s dad, mentioned that the matchmaking process in India was confined to the village or neighboring villages, lots of dates/meetings happened each day due to close proximity, etc.

in America, the process is now spread out through different states

• bachelors/bachelorettes travel to different states to meet with potential suitors

• the parents create biodatas for their kids that look like resumes in order to see if their kids would be a good match

  • recommendations carry weight

how do different income families differ in their perceptions/concerns?

lower-income families:

• perceive their neighborhood as poorer

• more worried about violence

• face challenges in finding good after-school activities

higher-income families

• perceive their neighborhood as better

• more likely to say kids are engaged in after-school activities

all income families share:

• concerns about their kids getting bullied + struggling with anxiety/depression

• say they’re doing a good job raising their kids

differences in single-parent and married parent households

number of single-parent households has been rising

single-parent households:

• kids more likely to grow up in poverty

• more likely to be Hispanic/Black households

married-parent households:

• more likely to be Asian/White households

education in US family perspectives

the more education parents have, the more likely they are to say too much involvement in their kids education is a bad thing

half of parents are satisfied with their school-age kids’ engagement while half aren’t

majority of parents are involved in their kids education

differences in discipline in US families

most parents explain why behavior is inappropriate

• parents with less education + Black parents more likely to spank their kids

what impacted the changing role of women in the 20th century?

increase in labor force participation

• following WW2, women were more active in labor force

magazine portrayals

• women shown in ultra feminine, housemaker roles

political climate

• leftists/liberals/feminists seen as Communists

psychology

• Freud’s bitchass contributed to antifeminism

what are the 3 distinct periods in the history of American childbirth?

1. social childbirth (1600s-1750s)

2. transitional stage (1800s-early 1900s)

3. medicalization of birth (1940s-now)

social childbirth 1600s-1750s (history of American childbirth)

birth was a social events experienced by all women in the community

• women supported each other during birth

• attended by midwives

birth happened in homes

death of infants a common reality

• anything that happened is God’s will

transitional stage, 1800s-early 1900s (history of American childbirth)

growth in the education of midwifery

• midwifery became an area of medicine (obstetrics)

development in science/biology/technology + medical advancements

• better tech/instruments made birth safer

midwives pushed out by male doctors

• male doctors educated specifically in birth can do a better job

• midwives couldn’t fight back because they didn’t have autonomous rights

medicalization of birth, 1940s-now (history of American childbirth)

hospitals more common place of birth

• dedicated maternity wings built

• reputation changed from being diseased with sepsis → hospitals are clean and safe

birth process essentially redefined from a social, women-only event to a medical procedure

• OB-GYNs attend most of births

• knowledge of the birthing procedure was monopolized by OB-GYNs

women’s rights movement contributed to changing attitudes

• women didn’t want to be in pain, hospitals have yummy narcotics

what is the issue of the medicalization of birth?

birth is treated as if it’s not a natural process

• OB-GYNs often perform a lot of unnecessary interventions

• birth is sped/rushed

  • faster birth → mother out of there quicker → next paying patient comes in quicker

  • “business of being born”

• this can lead to potentially disastrous outcomes

  • might explain why US has a really high IMR/MMR

medicalized birth means doctors/obstetricians have a monopoly on the knowledge of birth

• mother patients expected to be compliant to the knowledgeable doctor

• mothers are treated as if they have no knowledge in their own bodies and how birth happens

doula

a person who provides emotional/physical support for birthing individuals but are NOT medical professionals

research shows doula support leads to better maternal and neonatal outcomes

how did COVID-19 impact reproduction and mating norms?

it made dating and socializing really hard

babies born in lockdown affected by:

• huge stress felt by mothers pregnant during lockdown

• mothers being sick with COVID-19

how has the average age of marriage in the US changed over time?

people are getting married later in life

• the average marital age of women changed from 20-22 to 27-28

what are some possible explanations for why younger generations are getting married later?

• finances (growing cost of everything)

• thoughtfulness about oneself

  • prioritizing one’s health over the community’s norms

what affects how people meet?

proximity

• meet people in programs we regularly attend

shared values

• people who are close to us are generally similar to us

social propinquity

social nearness/similarity

the tendency to form close relationships who are physically close to us

• e.g. being attracted to people of similar backgrounds/values

seen in the Indian customs of marriage in Meet the Patels

“slow love”

the idea that people are being more thoughtful about love

• explains the phenomenon of the Millennial generation dating later and having less sex

health outcomes

variables/measures of how we’re doing

includes:

• life expectancy

• mortality

• morbidity

life expectancy

the average number of how long people are expected live in a society

• can be measured cross-culturally and historically

mortality

average rate of deaths occurring

includes maternal, infant, and child mortality

maternal mortality

average rate of death of mothers during pregnancy, labor, and 6 weeks postpartum per 100,000 live births

infant mortality

average rate of death of infants within the 1st year of life per 1,000 live births

• neonatal mortality: death within the womb

• postnatal mortality: death outside the womb

  • more attributable to environmental factors, since the infant came in contact with the outside

child mortality

death of a child between 1-5 years old

how are mortality and life expectancy statistics correlated?

high infant mortality predicts high maternal mortality

• high mortality → lower average life expectancy

• the reasons for these correlations include:

  • issues within the society (e.g. healthcare)

how does the US compared to other countries with it’s life expectancy?

the US’ average life expectancy is around 78.4

• this is 4 years less than peer nations, which is bad

• also has the highest rates of infant/maternal mortality

• reasons for this:

  • the medicalization of birth (midwives attend low amount of births)

  • racial discrimination (WOC have highest rates of mortality)

  • not having universal healthcare

twilight sleep era

period in the early 20th century where mothers were put to sleep and tied down during birth

thalidomide

one of the many birth drugs developed during the 20th century that led to child deformities

racial disparities in maternal mortality

black and american indian/alaskan native mothers have the highest rates of maternal mortality

all WOC, except Asians, have higher rates of teen pregnancy

also, higher infant mortality rates to WOC, except Asian women

what are the 4 factors associated with the large family size seen in Nigeria on average?

1. insurance strategy (having more kids to make sure at least some survive)

2. children provide labor and economic contribution to household

3. expectation of assistance from adult children during old age

4. restricted women’s autonomy

what are the major causes of death in the US today?

1. heart disease

2. cancer

3. stroke

4. accidental death

the top major causes of death of wealthy countries are usually chronic diseases

• due to advanced healthcare

developing countries have more death from non-chronic diseases

what are some recent trends taking place in the US regarding marriage/family formation?

marriage:

• marrying younger

• cohabitating (living together) before marriage

households:

• more non-traditional households (e.g. single-parent, partners of same sex, no children, etc.)

fertility/children:

• KGOY (menstruation/fertility beginning earlier)

• having few/no children later in life

how does patriarchy/male dominance affect reproduction rates in a country?

more male dominance = women having less choices over reproduction

• higher fertility rates + BPW

• higher infant/maternal mortality rates

BPW

births per women, a measure of fertility rate

measure of how many kids women in a society are having

replacement rate

refers to the balance between fertility and death rates determining a society’s population survival

• to keep population stable, replacement rate should be 2.1

  • >2.1 = population will increase

  • <2.1 = population will decrease

• child is replacing their mother AND father

what is the relationship between the wealth of a country and fertility rates?

modern/more wealthy countries = women have more education/autonomy = lower fertility rates

developing countries = women have less education/control over reproductive decisions = higher fertility rates

why do we see higher fertility rates in developing countries that have more male dominance?

in male-dominated countries, women have less autonomy and access to jobs/money

• leads to women getting status by doing what men can’t do: reproduce.

what is the perspective of the physician/author in Maternity Care in Crisis?

the US maternity system relies heavily on medical interventions

• too many unnecessary interventions are done, which leads to disastrous outcomes

• obstetricians monopolizing maternal care is the reason for the US’s high af maternal/infant mortality

midwives and holistic (considering the whole; psychological, social, mental, physical) health care approaches improve birth outcomes

• physicians should treat birth as a natural process and empower women to be autonomous in their bodies

how has the changing role of women affected marriage in the US?

women getting:

• more autonomy

• more labor force participation

• more education

• more access to contraceptives

affects marriage by:

• getting married later

• less stigmatization of having non-traditional kids, like out of wedlock

youth bulge

refers to a society’s population being largely young

• leads to social instability

common in Middle Eastern + North African countries

what affects death/fertility rates in countries?

developing countries with high death rates + high fertility rates:

• have lower death rates due to introduction of sanitization/immunization/good health practices

• then, fertility decreases as women get more autonomous

how do Nigeria’s government policies on abortion affect Nigerian abortion rates?

Nigeria’s government legislation restricts abortion

• leads to lack of contraceptives and safe medical procedures

leads to a lot of unsafe abortions and child abandonment

• people will do whatever they can to be in control of when they give birth

key takeaways from Meet the Patels movie

Ravi Patel, the main character, experienced pressure from his parents to marry an Indian girl

• struggled with social expectations and personal choice

traditional Indian matchmaking is based on family reputations/community approval

• Ravi was specifically looking for a “Patel”, which links to social propinquity

• Indians were matchmade using biodata created FOR their kids by the parents

biodata

a resume-type document that lists all the physical characteristics and interests of a bachelor/bachelorette

• made by Indian families in Meet the Patels to perfectly match their adult children to partners

key takeaways from The Business of Being Born

the medicalization of birth in the US turned the birthing process into a business

• has a lot of unnecessary medical interventions that rushes birth

Ricki Lake, of of the mothers the midwife main character attending the birth of, had a home birth in a tub with a midwife

key findings from the Pew Research Center survey Parenting in America

low-income parents worry more about:

• financial security

• education for kids

• have more stress

than high-income parents

how is healthcare in the US structured?

it is capitalist-based (healthcare coverage is based on employment)

• directly linked to racial and class inequalities

• reasons for high infant/maternal mortality rates and low average life expectancy

NOT universal healthcare

first wave of feminism

cumulated to women getting the right to vote in the 1920s

didn’t change much about women’s reproductive rights at first

second wave of feminism

from the late 1950s to the 1970s and beyond

changes in reproductive health, including:

• birth control pills

• right to abortion (Roe v. Wade, 1973)

• equal opportunity to work, education, and unions

led to more autonomy, since women could now control when they have kids

how did education in the US impact marriage?

women got equal access to education, and now make up more than half of students in college

led to a delay in marriage/having kids + lower fertility rates

key findings in they survey of North v. South India in The Determinants of Gender Equity

North India (Uttar Pradesh)

• marriage:

  • women married earlier

  • larger age gap between husband and wife

  • arranged marriages w/little choice

• female autonomy:

  • less women have college education

  • less likely to work outside the home

• fertility

  • higher, due to less autonomy for women

  • higher IMR/MMR

  • less government investment in women’s health

South India (Karnataka)

• marriage:

  • women married later

  • less of an age gap

  • choice in marriage

• higher female autonomy

• therefore, fertility:

  • lower

  • having kids older

  • lower IMR/MMR

what variables were associated with negative effects on mobility in the study The Determinants of Gender?

• practice of pudrah (Muslim women keeping out of sight of men) and gunghat (the headscarf/veil worn by married Muslim women)

• being Muslim

• husband's high education

• high household wealth

what variables were associated with positive effects on mobility in the study The Determinants of Gender?

• higher wages

• closer proximity to nearest town

• more simple public infrastructure, e.g. street lighting

according to the study done in the reading Early assessment of the relationship between COVID-19 pandemic and births, how did COVID-19 impact fertility?

out of the 27 countries examined,

• only 7 has significant declines

• 9 countries had positive increases

what impacted fertility rates in MENA countries?

at first, fertility rates remained high due to:

• strong cultural values of family and traditional marriage

then, fertility rates declined due to:

• women delaying marriage

• acceptance of family planning services by the government

• increased education of girls/young women

• increased contraceptive use

how does marrying young reinforce the cycle of fertility?

marrying young cuts off education, which reinforces the cycle of fertility, poverty, and early marriage

what was the US infant mortality rate in 2023?

5.6 per 1,000 live births

this is pretty high compared to the rest of the world (the US is #45)

how does IMR change by state in the US?

US states in the southeast (Texas to Florida) have the worst IMR rates

maternity care deserts

US counties that have very limited access to hospitals, birth centers, OBGYNs, or other maternity care

countries right down the midwest and most of Alaska are maternity care deserts