Zoology Final Exam Flashcards

what is the lymphatic system?

It is the vital, extensive network of tissues organs, and vessels that act as the body’s “sewerage” and defense system

what population of cells are found in the lymphatic system?

Cells:

• Lymphocytes

• T cells

• B cells

• Natural Killer Cells

• Macrophages

• Dendritic cells

• Plasma cells

• Lymphatic endothelial cells

Locations:

• Lymph nodes

• Spleen

• Thymus

• Bone marrow

• Lymphatic vessels

What is the difference between lymphatic vessels, arteries, and veins?

Vessels:

• Absorb the fluid between cells from lymph, transporting it through immune-filtering nodes before returning it to the blood

• Thinnest walls, numerous valves, one-way flow

Arteries:

• Transport oxygenated, nutrient-rich blood away from heart to tissues

• Thick-walled, elastic, and muscular to withstand high pressure from heart, no valves

Veins:

• Return deoxygenated blood, carrying waste products, back to heart

• Thinner walls with a larger, irregular opening, valves to prevent back flow of blood

Name some organs associated with the lymphatic system

Lymph nodes, thymus, spleen, and bone marrow

What is lymph composed of?

• Water

• lymphocytes and leukocytes

• proteins

• fats

• waste produces

• electrolytes

In the respiratory system, what is the pathway from the nostrils to the alveoli?

Nasal cavity —> pharynx —> larynx —> trachea —> bronchi —> bronchioles —> alveoli

What type of epithelial tissue makes up the alveoli?

Simple squamous epithelium

What is the structure of the glottis?

opening between the vocal colds in the larynx

What is the structure of the Epiglottis?

leaf-shape flap of elastic cartilage located behind the tongue

What is the structure of the Trachea?

rigid tube starting below the larynx, often called the “windpipe,” composed of C-shaped cartilage rings

What is the structure of the Nasopharynx?

uppermost part of the pharynx, situated behind the nasal cavity

What is the structure of the Oropharynx?

middle part of the pharynx, located behind the oral cavity

What is the structure of the Larygnopharnx?

lowest part of pharynx, connecting larynx to esophagus

Definition of tidal volume (respiratory system)

volume of air moving in and out of lungs in a person at rest

Definition of Respiratory capacity (respiratory system)

the sum of two or more lung volumes

Definition of Ventilation rate (respiratory system)

the total volume of air moved in/out of the lungs per minute

Definition of Vital capacity (respiratory system)

maximum amount of air that can be expired after a forceful inspiration

Definition of Total lung volume (respiratory system)

the total volume of air in the lungs after taking the deepest breath possible

Definition of Hypoventilation (respiratory system)

insufficient breathing, blood has abnormally high PCO2

Definition of Hyperventilation (respiratory system)

excessive breathing, blood has abnormally low PCO2

If you are hyperventilating, why is it beneficial to breathe into a paper bag? What does this do to the oxygen and CO2 levels?

When you hyperventilate you have an excessive exhalation of carbon dioxide which makes your blood less acidic (increasing pH), so you breathe in a bag to which forces re-inhalation of carbon dioxide to increase you blood acidity back to normal (decreasing pH)

How does the body compensate at high elevation?

The body lowers oxygen levels by increasing breathing rate and heart rate (hyperventilation)

Is oxygen at a higher or lower partial pressure at high elevation?

Lower partial pressure

What is the normal partial pressure of oxygen at sea level?

160mmHG

What is the partial pressure of oxygen in the alveoli?

105mmHG

What is COPD?

• Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

• Refers to any disorder that obstructs airflow on a long-term basis

Examples of COPD

• asthma

• emphysema

• lung cancer

• covid-19

explain asthma

• Allergen triggers the release of histamine, causing intensive constriction of the bronchi and sometimes suffocation

explain Emphysema

• Alveolar walls break down and the lung exhibits larger but fewer alveoli

• Lungs become less elastic

• People with emphysema become exhausted because they expand three to four times the normal amount of energy just to breathe

• 80-90% of emphysema deaths are caused by cigarette smoking

explain Lung cancer

• Accounts for more deaths than any other form of cancer

• Caused mainly by cigarette smoking

• Lung cancer metabolizes (spreads) so rapidly that it has usually invaded other organs by the time it is diagnosed

• Chance of recovery from metastasized lung cancer is poor, with only 3% of patients surviving for 5 years after diagnosis

explain covid-19

• A novel coronavirus, manifests as a respiratory disease

• Transmitted among people via respiratory droplets (coughing, sneezing, breathing, etc.)

• Traced to a live animal marker in Wuhan City, China

• A zoonotic disease (bats —> unknown animal —> humans), human consumption of or contract with an unknown infected animal

• Bats have a strong immune response, probably linked to flying and the need to quickly repair cell damage

• As a result, virus quickly adapts and replicates in bats

• But bats don’t die and carry the virus far and wide

• Infection in animal with weaker immune system (ex. Humans) means a highly virulent response

How do red blood cells get oxygenated?

Passive diffusion in the lungs where oxygen binds to hemoglobin and creates a oxyhemoglobin

How do red blood cells transport CO2?

Bicarbonate conversion, carbaminohemoglobin, and dissolved in plasma

What are the components of blood?

• Plasma

• red blood cells

• white blood cells

• platelets

Name all the plasma proteins and know their functions

Albumin = maintains colloid osmotic pressure (prevents edema), transports hormones, fatty acids, bilirubin, and drugs, and maintains blood volume

Globulins = alpha and beta globulins (transports lipids, ion, and fat-soluble vitamins) and gamma globulins (produced by B lymphocytes for immunity, identify and neutralize invaders like bacteria and viruses)

Fibrinogen = essential for blood coagulation, activated to form fibrin threads that create a sticky, fibrous mesh to stop bleeding

What are platelets, where are they made, and what is their function?

• They are cell fragments that pinch off from larger cells in the bone marrow

• Made in the bone marrow

• Function in the formation of blood clots

how are turtles and humans respiratory system similar and different?

• Similarities:

  • Both use lungs

  • Share similar basic anatomy including a trachea that splits into brooch leading to the lungs

• Differences:

  • Humans use a diaphragm to expand lungs, turtles have a shell so they use inner muscles to move air

  • Turtles use “butt-breathing” during hibernation or long dives

  • Turtles can handle much higher carbon dioxide levels in their blood so they can hold their breath for hours

how are turtles and humans Digestive system similar and different?

• Similarities:

  • Contains similar organs like esophagus, stomach, live, gallbladder, intestines, and functions similarly with bile produced in liver and stored in gallbladder

• Differences:

  • Turtles have a cloaca for fecal, urine, and reproductive material, humans have separate openings

  • Turtles have a much slower digestion rate designed to break down plant cell walls via microbial digestion

  • Humans have teeth, turtles have a beak

how are turtles and humans circulatory system similar and different?

• Similarities:

  • Both have a closed circulatory system with arteries and veins

• Differences:

  • Humans have a 4-chambered heart, turtles have a 3-chambered heart

  • Humans have higher blood pressure and higher metabolism, turtles have lower blood pressure and lower metabolism

What are the stages of meiosis?

meiosis 1 and meiosis 2

explain meiosis 1

• Prophase 1: chromosomes condense and pair up with their homologue, CROSSING OVER

• Metaphase 1: homologous pairs align along the center of the cell, INDEPENDENT ASSORTMENT

• Anaphase 1: homologous chromosomes are pulled to opposite poles of the cell, sister chromatids remain attached

• Telophase 1 and Cytokinesis: chromosomes arrive at the poles and the cytoplasm divides into 2 haploid (n) cells

explain meiosis 2

• Prophase 2: chromosomes condense and nuclear envelope breaks down again

• Metaphase 2: chromosomes align in single file along the metaphase plate

• Anaphase 2: sister chromatids separate and are pulled to opposite poles

• Telophase 2 and Cytokinesis: nuclear membranes reform and the cytoplasm divides, resulting in 4 unique haploid daughter cells

How does meiosis increase genetic diversity?

• Crossing over in prophase 1: homologous chromosomes pair up and exchange segments of DNA, creating new combinations of alleles (recombination)

• Independent assortment in metaphase 1: homologous pairs align randomly along the cell equator, each gamete receives a unique mixture of maternal and paternal chromosomes

Does mitosis increase genetic diversity?

Mitosis does not increase genetic diversity

What are examples of adaptive evolution?

• Peppered moths

  • Industrial melanism = phenomenon in which darker individuals come to predominate over lighter ones

  • Light-colored moths declined because of predation because they were easily seen by birds on darkened (sooty) trees

• Darwin’s finches

  • Darwin collected a closely related group of 14 finch species in the Galapagos islands

  • All were similar except for break characteristics

  • Darwin hypothesized that different beak shapes were related to food gathering

  • Ancestral species adapted over time to equip to acquire different food sources

What are examples of coelomates?

process a true body cavity completely lined by mesoderm:

• chordates (humans, birds, fish)

• arthropods (insects, crustaceans)

• mollusks (snails, clams)

• annelids (earthworms)

• echinoderms (starfish)

What are examples of _acoelomates?

lack a body cavity entirely:

• Platyhelminthes (flatworms, tapeworms, flukes)

• cnidarians (jellyfish, corals)

What are examples of psuedocoelomates?

possess a “false” body cavity not completely lined by mesoderm:

• nematodes (roundworms)

• rotifers

What are the similarities and differences between an artery and vein?

Both have:

• Endothelium, elastic layer, smooth muscle, and connective tissue

• Transfer blood and in single directions

Differences:

• Arteries carry blood away from the heart

• Veins carry blood toward the heart

• Arteries manage high-pressured blood flow

• Veins operate at a lower pressure

• Arteries have thicker walls, veins are thinner

• Veins have one-way valves to prevent back flow of blood against gravity, arteries do not

• Veins hold 65-75% of the body’s blood volume, arteries hold 15%

What is the function of a capillary?

• Composed of only a single layer of endothelial cells

• Allows for rapid exchange of gases and metabolites between blood and body cells

What is atherosclerosis?

• Accumulation of fatty material within arteries

• Impedes blood flow

What is arteriosclerosis?

Arterial hardening due to calcium deposition

What is a stent and angioplasty?

• It is a minimally invasive procedure

• Commonly called Percutaneous Coronary Intervention (PCI)

• Used to open blocked coronary arteries and restore blood flow

1. Access: A doctor inserts a thin tube (catheter) into a blood vessel through the wrist or groin.

2. Visualization: Dye is injected to show the blockage using X-ray imaging.

3. Balloon Inflation: A tiny balloon is inflated at the site of the narrowing, pushing plaque against the artery wall.

4. Stent Placement: A small metal mesh scaffold (stent) is expanded by the balloon, remaining in place to keep the artery open.

what are the 4 valves of the heart?

1. Atrioventricular (AV) valves:

• Maintain unidirectional blood flow between atria and ventricles

• Tricuspid valve = on the right

• Bicuspid (or mitral) valve = on the left

2. Semilunar valves:

• Ensure one-way flow out of the ventricles to the arterial systems

• Pulmonary valve = located at the exit of the right ventricle

• Aortic valve = located at the exit of the left ventricle

Which side of the heart is high and low pressure?

High pressure = left side

Low pressure = right side

What is the job of the atria and ventricles?

Atria (upper chambers) = collect incoming blood to fill the ventricles

Ventricles (lower chambers) = contract strongly to pump blood out of the lungs and body

Both act as the heart’s receiving and pumping stations

Where does the systemic circulation go?

Moves blood between the heart and the rest of the body

Where does the pulmonary circulation go?

Moves blood between the heart and the lungs

Where is the apical and basal surface of epithelial tissue?

Basal = bottom/secured side

Apical = top/free side

What is the Hardy-Weinberg equation?

p^2 + 2pq + q^2 = 1

What does p and q signify?

p = dominant allele frequency

q = recessive allele frequency

What does p^2, 2pq, and q^2 signify?

p^2 = frequency of homozygous dominant alleles

2pq = frequency of heterozygous alleles

q^2 = frequency of homozygous recessive alleles

How do you calculate the frequency of heterozygous and homozygous recessive/dominant individuals?

Using Hardy-Weinberg!

What is endoderm, ectoderm, and mesoderm?

Ectoderm = outermost layer

Mesoderm = middle layer

Endoderm = innermost layer

What creatures have 2 germ layers?

Diploblasts like jellyfish, corals, sea anemones, comb jellies, etc. (cnidarians)

What creatures have 3 germ layers?

Triploblasts like humans, mammals, birds, fish, flatworms, mollusks, arthropods, etc. (chordata, mollusca, arthropoda, platyhelminthes)

Name an animal(s) for porifera:

sponges

Name an animal(s) for Cnidaria:

jellyfish, sea anemone, coral

Name an animal(s) for Ctenophora:

comb jellies

Name an animal(s) for Platyhelminthes:

flatworms, planaria, tapeworms

Name an animal(s) for Rotifera:

rotifers

Name an animal(s) for Nematoda:

roundworms

Name an animal(s) for Mollusca:

gastropoda, cephlapoda, bivalvia

Name an animal(s) for Annelida:

earthworms and leaches

Name an animal(s) for Arthropoda:

insects and crustaceans

Name an animal(s) for Echinodermata:

star fish and urchins

Name an animal(s) for Chordata:

humans, mammals, horses

what is type 1 diabetes?

• “no key”

• Usually develops in children or young adults, but can occur at any age

• Pancreas does not produce insulin (hormone)

• Must take daily insulin injections

what is type 2 diabetes?

• “damaged lock”

• Adult-onset, but can occur in adolescence

• Often associated with obesity

• Insulin rejection

• Controlled through diet and exercise

What are side effects of having diabetes?

• Cardiovascular disease

• nerve damage

• kidney damage

• eye damage

• foot complications

• infections

• mental health

What is the complete pathway of the digestive tract?

Mouth —> pharynx —> esophagus —> stomach —> small intestine —> large intestine —> rectum —> anus

What enzymes digest carbs, fats, and proteins?

Carbs = amylase

Lipase = fats

Pepsin or trypsin = protein

How are human GI tracts different from herbivores? Humans VS birds VS cows

Humans:

• Mouth and pharynx = entry

• Esophagus = delivers food to stomach

• Stomach = preliminary digestion

• Small intestine = digestion and absorption

• Large intestine = absorption of water and minerals

• Rectum = expel waste

Birds:

• Lack teeth

• Break up food in a two-chambered stomach

• Gizzard = muscular chamber that uses ingested pebbles to pulverize food

• Crop = storage

Cows:

• They have a four-chambered stomach (rumen, reticulum, omasum, and abomasum)

• Can ferment/digest tough cellulose

• Rumination

• They have a much longer tract

• Evolved only once

Why do some animals eat their own feces?

• Aka coprophagy

• Eat their feces to absorb nutrients on the second passage of food

• Cannot remain healthy if prevented from eating feces

What is cellulose?

A structural polysaccharide that forms the main component of plant cell walls providing rigidity and strength

What animals can digest it and can humans digest cellulose?

• Ruminants like cows, sheep, goats

• Hindmost fermenters like horses, rabbits

• Humans cannot digest cellulose

What anatomical structures in the GI tract can digest cellulose?

• Rumen (large, specialized chamber in the stomach where microorganisms ferment cellulose before it reaches the true stomach)

• Cecum (found between small and large intestines and serves as main site for microbial breakdown of cellulose)

• Colon/large intestine (further fermentation happens here)

• Hindgut (insects)

What are all the epithelial tissues?

• Simple squamous

• Simple cuboidal

• Simple columnar

• Pseudostratified columnar

• Stratified squamous

where is the simple squamous epithelial tissue found?

• lines lungs and blood capillaries

where is the Simple cuboidal epithelial tissue found?

• lines kidney tubules and several glands

where is the Simple columnar epithelial tissue found?

• lines airways of respiratory tract and most of the gastrointestinal tract

where is the Pseudostratified columnar epithelial tissue found?

• lining parts of respiratory tract (trachea, bronchi, and nasal cavity)

where is the Stratified squamous epithelial tissue found?

• outer layer of skin, lining of mouth, keratinized

What is keratin and where is it found?

• Keratin is a strong, fibrous protein produced naturally by the body that acts as the main structural support component of hair, skin, and nails

• Found in outer layer of skin, hair, and nails

What are all the connective tissues?

• Adipose

• Dense regular

• Dense irregular

• Cartilage

• Bone

• Blood

where is the adipose connective tissue found?

• subcutaneous layer under the skin

where is the dense regular connective tissue found?

• tendons and ligaments

where is the dense irregular connective tissue found?

• covers kidneys, muscles, nerves, and bones

where is the Cartilage connective tissue found?

• joint surfaces

where is the Bone connective tissue found?

• most of skeleton