Postmodernism

• Postmodernism is a major intellectual movement that has emerged since the 1970s.

• It has been influential in many areas, including sociology.

• Postmodernists argue that we are now living in a new era of postmodernity. Postmodernity is an u____, f____, m____-s____ g___ v____, where i____ and r____ are i____.

• In postmodern society, we d____ ourselves by what we c____. It is not a c_____ of modernity, but a f____ b____ with it

• . For postmodernists, this new kind of society requires a new kind of theory - modernist theories no longer a___.

• Postmodernism is a major intellectual movement that has emerged since the 1970s.

• It has been influential in many areas, including sociology.

• Postmodernists argue that we are now living in a new era of postmodernity. Postmodernity is an unstable, fragmented, media-saturated global village, where image and reality are indistinguishable.

• In postmodern society, we define ourselves by what we consume. It is not a continuation of modernity, but a fundamental break with it

• . For postmodernists, this new kind of society requires a new kind of theory - modernist theories no longer apply.

• Drawing on the ideas of Michel Foucault (what does he argue?), postmodernists argue that there are no sure f_____ to knowledge - no objective criteria we can use to prove whether a theory is t___ or f___.

This view - known as a____-f____ - has two consequences:

1 The Enlightenment project of achieving progress through t___, s_____ knowledge is d____. If we cannot guarantee our knowledge is correct, we cannot use it to i____ society

2 Any all-embracing theory that claims what?, such as Marxism, is a mere m____-n____ or 'big story' - just s____ v___ of r___, not the truth. Therefore there is no reason to a___ the c___ that the theory makes.

• Drawing on the ideas of Michel Foucault (which argues no knowledge is truer than another so therefore new knowledge is not progress but a new way of thinking), postmodernists argue that there are no sure foundations to knowledge - no objective criteria we can use to prove whether a theory is true or false.

This view - known as anti-foundationalism - has two consequences:

1 The Enlightenment project of achieving progress through true, scientific knowledge is dead. If we cannot guarantee our knowledge is correct, we cannot use it to improve society

2 Any all-embracing theory that claims to have the truth about how to create a better society, such as Marxism, is a mere meta-narrative or 'big story' - just someone's version of reality, not the truth. Therefore there is no reason to accept the claims that the theory makes.

• Postmodernists also reject meta-narratives such as Marxism on the grounds of what? For example, in the former S____ U_____, the states attempt to re-mould society on M____ principles led to political r____ and s___ l____ c____.

• Rejecting meta-narratives that claim absolute truth, postmodernists take a relativist position. what does this mean?

• No one has s____ a____ to the truth - including sociologists. All accounts of reality are equally v___. We should therefore c___ the d___ of views rather than seek to i___ one v____ of the t___ on everyone.

• Postmodernists also reject meta-narratives such as Marxism on the grounds that they have helped to create oppressive totalitarian states that impose their version of the truth on people.

• For example, in the former Soviet Union, the states attempt to re-mould society on Marxist principles led to political repression and slave labour camps.

• Rejecting meta-narratives that claim absolute truth, postmodernists take a relativist position. That is, they argue that all views are true for those who hold them personally .

• No one has special access to the truth - including sociologists. All accounts of reality are equally valid. We should therefore celebrate the diversity of views rather than seek to impose one version of the truth on everyone.

But if knowledge is not about the truth. what is it about?

• According to J____-F____ L____ (1992), in postmodern society, knowledge is just a series of different ' language games' - what does this mean?

• However in his view, postmodern society, with its many c____ views of the t____, it is still regardless, preferable to modern society, where meta-narratives claimed a m____ of t____ and sometimes sought to impose it by f____, as in the Soviet Union.

• Postmodernity allows groups who had been m_____ by modern society, such as minority groups and women, to be h___.

But if knowledge is not about the truth. what is it about?

• According to Jean-Francois Lvotard (1992), in postmodern society, knowledge is just a series of different ' language games' - Each group is playing its own “game” with its own rules, so there’s no single “truth” or ways of seeing the world that applies everywhere.

• However in his view, postmodern society, with its many competing views of the truth, it is still regardless, preferable to modern society, where meta-narratives claimed a monopoly of truth and sometimes sought to impose it by force, as in the Soviet Union.

• Postmodernity allows groups who had been marginalised by modern society, such as minority groups and women, to be heard.

Baudrillard: simulacra

• Like Lyotard, Baudrillard (1983) argues that knowledge is c____ to postmodern society.

• He argues that society is no longer based on the production of material goods, but rather on what?However, unlike signs in past societies, those today bear no r___ to p___ r___.

• Instead, signs stand for nothing other than t___ - they are not symbols of some other r____ thing. Baudrillard calls such signs s____ (singular: s____). For example, tabloid newspaper articles about fictitious soap opera characters are 'signs about signs' what dies this mean?

• Baudrillard describes this situation as hyper-reality: where the s____ appear more real than r____ itself and s____ themselves for reality. However, because the signs do not represent anything real, they are literally m____.

• In this respect, Baudrillard is particularly critical of television, why?

Baudrillard: simulacra

• Like Lyotard, Baudrillard (1983) argues that knowledge is central to postmodern society.

• He argues that society is no longer based on the production of material goods, but rather on buying and selling knowledge in the form of images and signs. However, unlike signs in past societies, those today bear no relation to physical reality.

• Instead, signs stand for nothing other than themselves - they are not symbols of some other real thing. Baudrillard calls such signs simulacra (singular: simulacrum). For example, tabloid newspaper articles about fictitious soap opera characters are 'signs about signs' a sign is a fake thing which leads to a chain of meaning with no real-world object behind it. rather than an underlying reality.

• Baudrillard describes this situation as hyper-reality: where the signs appear more real than reality itself and substitute themselves for reality. However, because the signs do not represent anything real, they are literally meaningless.

• In this respect, Baudrillard is particularly critical of television, which he sees as the main source of simulacra and of our inability to distinguish between image and reality.

Culture, identity and politics

• Postmodernists argue that culture and identity in postmodern society differ f____ from modern society, especially because of the role of the media in creating h__-r____.

• The media are all p_____ and they produce an endless stream of e____ c___ i____, v____ and v____ of the t___. As a result, culture becomes f____ and u___, so that there is no longer a c____ or f____ set of values shared by members

• This b_____ a____ of different messages and ideas also undermines people's f___ in m____-n___. Confronted what?, people cease to do what?(like mummy and olympia)

• Furthermore, given the failure of meta-narratives such as M____ to deliver a b___ s___, people lose f____ in the possibility of r____ progress.

• In postmodernity, identity also becomes d___. For example, instead of a fixed identity ascribed by our class, we can now c____ our own i___ from the wide range of images and lifestyles on offer in the media.

• We can easily change our identity simply by changing our c____ p____ - picking and mixing cultural goods and media-produced images to define ourselves.

Culture, identity and politics

• Postmodernists argue that culture and identity in postmodern society differ fundamentally from modern society, especially because of the role of the media in creating hyper-reality.

• The media are all pervading and they produce an endless stream of ever changing images, values and versions of the truth. As a result, culture becomes fragmented and unstable, so that there is no longer a coherent or fixed set of values shared by members

• This bewildering array of different messages and ideas also undermines people's faith in meta-narratives. Confronted by so many different versions of the truth, people cease to believe wholeheartedly in any one version (like mummy and olympia)

• Furthermore, given the failure of meta-narratives such as Marxism to deliver a better society, people lose faith in the possibility of rational progress.

• In postmodernity, identity also becomes destabilised. For example, instead of a fixed identity ascribed by our class, we can now construct our own identity from the wide range of images and lifestyles on offer in the media.

• We can easily change our identity simply by changing our consumption patterns - picking and mixing cultural goods and media-produced images to define ourselves.

• Baudrillard is p_____ about the postmodern condition.

• m____-c____ h____-r____ (like ai) leaves us unable to distinguish i___^ from r____.

• This means that we have lost the power to i____ s____: if we cannot even g___ r____, then we have no power to c____ it.

• Political activity to improve the world is i____, and so the central goal of the E____ project is u____.

• Baudrillard is pessimistic about the postmodern condition.

• Media-created hyper-reality (like ai) leaves us unable to distinguish image from reality.

• This means that we have lost the power to improve society: if we cannot even grasp reality, then we have no power to change it.

• Political activity to improve the world is impossible, and so the central goal of the Enlightenment project is unachievable.

Evaluation of postmodernism - ✓strengths

• ✓- Postmodernists make some important points about today's society, such as the significance of the m____ for c__ and i____

• ✓- Some also argue that its rejection of what? is valuable and why

Evaluation of postmodernism - ✓strengths

• ✓- Postmodernists make some important points about today's society, such as the significance of the media for culture and identity.

• ✓- Some also argue that its rejection of all-embracing meta-narratives is valuable as Postmodernity allows groups who had been marginalised by modern society, such as minority groups and women, to be heard.

Evaluation of postmodernism - ✘limitations

From a Marxist perspective, Philo and Miller (2001) make several criticisms of postmodernism:

• ✘- It ignores power and inequality. For example, the idea that media images are unconnected with reality ignores what??

• ✘- Similarly, the claim that we f___ c____ our identities through consumption overlooks the effect of p___ in r___ such o_____

• ✘- Postmodernists are simply wrong to claim what?

• ✘-Why is assuming all views are equally true, morally dangerous?

Evaluation of postmodernism - ✘limitations

From a Marxist perspective, Philo and Miller (2001) make several criticisms of postmodernism:

• ✘- It ignores power and inequality. For example, the idea that media images are unconnected with reality ignores the ruling class' use of the media as a tool of domination.

• ✘- Similarly, the claim that we freely construct our identities through consumption overlooks the effect of poverty in restricting such opportunities.

• ✘- Postmodernists are simply wrong to claim that people cannot distinguish between reality and media image.

• ✘- By claiming that all perspectives are equally valid, postmodernism risks endorsing morally unacceptable views, such as Nazis denying the Holocaust, which makes this approach ethically dangerous.

Evaluation of postmodernism - ✘limitations

✘Postmodernism can be criticised on logical grounds

• For example, L___ theory is self-defeating- what does this mean?

• Moreover, B____ and K____ (1991) point out that postmodernism is a particularly weak theory: while it identifies some important features of today's society (such as the importance of the media and consumption), it fails to explain how they came about.

Evaluation of postmodernism - ✘limitations

✘Postmodernism can be criticised on logical grounds

• For example, L___ theory is self-defeating- what does For example, Lyotard's theory is self-defeating: why should we believe a theory that claims that no theory has the truth?

• Moreover, Best and Kellner (1991) point out that postmodernism is a particularly weak theory: while it identifies some important features of today's society (such as the importance of the media and consumption), it fails to explain how they came about.

Evaluation of postmodernism - ✘limitations

✘-Postmodernists are criticised for their pessimism about the E____ project

• what is pessimistic about postmodernism?

• H____ (1989) rejects this pessimistic view. He argues that p____ decisions do make a real d___ to people's lives and that k____ can be used to solve h____ p____.

• Even if our theories cannot guarantee a____ t____, many sociologists argue that they are at least an a____ to it.

• As such, they are the best guide we have to improving the world.

Evaluation of postmodernism - ✘limitations

✘Postmodernism can be criticised on logical grounds

• Postmodernists are criticised for their pessimism about the Enlightenment project - their view that objective knowledge is impossible and that nothing can be done to improve society.

• Harvey (1989) rejects this pessimistic view. He argues that political decisions do make a real difference to people's lives and that knowledge can be used to solve human problems.

• Even if our theories cannot guarantee absolute truth, many sociologists argue that they are at least an approximation to it.

• As such, they are the best guide we have to improving the world.

While postmodernism has identified some important features of today's society, it is poorly equipped to explain them. By contrast, recent sociological theories have offered more satisfactory explanations of what The remainder of this Topic looks at some of these sociological theories - what are 2 ?

While postmodernism has identified some important features of today's society, it is poorly equipped to explain them. By contrast, recent sociological theories have offered more satisfactory explanations of the changes society is undergoing. The remainder of this Topic looks at some of these sociological theories:

• Theories of late modernity

• marxist theories of postmodernity