honors anatomy semester 2 final exam

Blood

specialized connective tissue

Two elements of connective tissue:

• Cells (formed elements)

• Matrix (plasma)

Erythrocytes (RBCs)

carry oxygen (MOST abundant)

Leukocytes (WBCs

• immune defense

Platelets

clotting

Neutrophils

fight bacteria (most abundant WBC)

Lymphocytes

immune response (B & T cells)

Monocytes –

become macrophages

Eosinophils

fight parasites, allergies

Basophils

release histamine (inflammation)

Hemostasis (clotting steps):

• Vascular spasm

• Platelet plug formation

• Coagulation

Heparin

prevents clotting (anticoagulant)

Circulations:

• Pulmonary: heart ↔ lungs

• Systemic: heart ↔ body

Valves:

• Tricuspid (right AV)

• Mitral (left AV)

• Pulmonary semilunar

• Aortic semilunar

Electrical conduction:

SA node → AV node → bundle of His → Purkinje fibers

Cardiac output:

CO=SV×HR

Heart sounds:

• “Lub” = AV valves close

• “Dub” = semilunar valves close

Arteries

thick, carry blood away

Veins:

• thinner, carry blood to heart

Lymphatic & Immune System

Functions:

• Return fluid to blood

• Filter pathogens

• Immune response

Main control of breathing:

↑ CO₂ levels

Steps of respiration:

1. Pulmonary ventilation

2. External respiration

3. Transport

4. Internal respiration

Digestive System

Functions:

• Ingestion

• Digestion

• Absorption

• Defecation

Small intestine

duodenum, jejunum, ileum

Microvilli

• increase absorption

Organs:

• Liver makes bile

• Gallbladder stores bile

Urinary System

Main function

remove wastes, regulate balance

Kidney structure:

• Cortex (outer)

• Medulla (inner)

Nephron (functional unit):

• Glomerulus (filters blood)

• Bowman’s capsule

• Tubules

Gonads:

• Male: testes

• Female: ovaries

Sperm parts:

• Head (acrosome)

• Midpiece

• Tail